Mindfulness, cognitive load, and performance: examining the interplay of stress and self-regulation in physical education

Abstract

Purpose

This study investigates the role of mindfulness practices and self-regulation in reducing cognitive load stress and enhancing physical performance among university students in physical education. Using a comprehensive structural model, the research explains the mediating effect of cognitive load stress and the moderating role of self-regulation in these relationships.

Methods

Data collected from 498 students were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling, ensuring robust measurement and predictive validity.

Results

The findings reveal that mindfulness practices significantly reduce cognitive load stress and directly enhance physical performance. Besides, cognitive load stress acts as a mechanism through which mindfulness improves performance, indicating an indirect effect. Moreover, self-regulation strengthens both the direct and indirect pathways, highlighting its role in shaping these relationships.

Conclusion

The study contributes to goal-setting theory and stress and coping theory by clarifying the mechanisms linking mental strategies to physical outcomes.

Implications

Practical implications suggest integrating mindfulness and self-regulation strategies into physical education programs to foster improved performance and well-being. These insights highlight the value of holistic approaches in educational settings.

Introduction

In contemporary academic and professional landscapes, the increasing demands of cognitive and physical tasks have emphasized the significance of strategies to enhance both mental well-being and performance outcomes. Among such strategies, mindfulness practices have garnered significant attention as an effective intervention for managing cognitive challenges and improving overall performance [1]. Mindfulness practices refer to intentional techniques that promote present-moment awareness, attention regulation, and nonjudgmental acceptance of one’s experiences [2]. These practices, grounded in present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental attention, have been shown to reduce mental overload and enhance task efficiency [2]. In physical education contexts, where cognitive and physical performance are interlinked [3], the role of mindfulness has emerged as a pivotal area for exploration. Recent advancements in psychology and education underscore the need to examine how mindfulness impacts stress and performance outcomes, particularly in dynamic and demanding settings [4].

Cognitive load stress [5], a prominent challenge in educational and physical domains, has been widely associated with impaired performance and mental exhaustion. Cognitive load stress is the psychological strain that occurs when cognitive demands exceed an individual’s capacity to process information effectively [5]. Theoretical frameworks, such as cognitive load theory, suggest that excessive cognitive demands can negatively affect an individual’s ability to execute physical tasks effectively [6]. While existing literature has explored the relationship between cognitive load and performance, there remains a gap in understanding the mechanisms through which mindfulness practices can alleviate stress and optimize task execution [7]. Addressing this gap is crucial, especially in physical education contexts, where cognitive demands and physical performance converge [3].

Mediation effects provide critical insights into the mechanisms underlying complex relationships between constructs. In this study, cognitive load stress is positioned as a mediating variable between mindfulness practices and physical performance. Prior research indicates that mindfulness practices indirectly enhance performance by reducing cognitive stress, allowing individuals to allocate mental resources more effectively [8]. This relationship not only highlights the stress-reducing potential of mindfulness but also provides empirical evidence for its broader applicability in improving performance outcomes across various settings.

Furthermore, the study, on the other hand, reveal how specific variables influence the strength or direction of relationships within a model. Self-regulation, characterized by an individual’s ability to control and adapt thoughts and behaviors [8], has been identified as a critical moderator in enhancing the efficacy of mindfulness practices. According to McClelland et al. [8], elf-regulation involves the capacity to plan, monitor, and adjust one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve specific goals. Theoretical frameworks, such as self-regulation theory [9], propose that individuals with high self-regulation are better equipped to utilize mindfulness techniques to manage stress and improve performance. Recent studies have corroborated these theoretical assumptions, suggesting that self-regulation amplifies the positive effects of mindfulness on cognitive and physical outcomes [10].

The interplay of mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, and self-regulation is underpinned by goal-setting theory, which posits that goal-directed behaviors are influenced by both internal and external factors [11]. By integrating mindfulness practices into goal-setting frameworks, individuals can enhance focus, reduce stress, and achieve better performance outcomes. The theoretical alignment of goal-setting theory with the constructs examined in this study provides a robust foundation for understanding the mechanisms through which mindfulness and self-regulation impact cognitive and physical domains. Physical performance in this context refers to a student’s ability to execute physical education tasks efficiently, incorporating strength, coordination, endurance, and focus [10].

This study is particularly significant in the context of physical education, where performance outcomes are influenced by both cognitive and physical demands. By examining the mediating role of cognitive load stress and the moderating effect of self-regulation, this research contributes to the growing body of literature on mindfulness and performance enhancement. Furthermore, the study addresses critical gaps in existing research by providing empirical evidence on the combined effects of these constructs, offering valuable insights for educators, practitioners, and policymakers.

Through this investigation, we aim to expand the theoretical and practical understanding of mindfulness practices in physical education. By exploring the relationships between mindfulness, cognitive load stress, and physical performance, as well as the moderating role of self-regulation, this study offers a comprehensive framework for addressing stress and optimizing performance in educational and physical domains. The findings are expected to contribute to the development of targeted interventions, fostering better outcomes for individuals navigating cognitive and physical challenges in various contexts.

Literature review

Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theory [12] serves as the foundational framework for this study, offering a robust explanation of how mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, and self-regulation interact to influence physical performance (Fig. 1). This theory posits that goal-directed behavior is shaped by specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives, which facilitate focus and enhance performance outcomes. By integrating mindfulness practices into goal-setting frameworks, individuals are better equipped to regulate their cognitive and physical efforts, aligning their mental and physical resources with task-specific goals [12]. This theoretical lens provides a structured approach to understanding the mechanisms through which mindfulness practices alleviate cognitive load stress and foster optimal performance.

The interplay of mindfulness practices and self-regulation within goal-setting theory highlights the dynamic nature of cognitive and behavioral processes in achieving performance outcomes. Mindfulness practices, which emphasize present-moment awareness and attention regulation, align with the motivational aspects of goal-setting theory by reducing distractions and enhancing focus [13]. Simultaneously, self-regulation supports goal-directed behavior by enabling individuals to monitor and adjust their actions in response to stressors [13], thereby amplifying the effects of mindfulness. This dual mechanism underscores the relevance of goal-setting theory in explaining how mindfulness and self-regulation collectively contribute to reducing cognitive load stress and improving physical performance.

Furthermore, goal-setting theory’s emphasis on feedback loops and iterative learning [11] aligns with the study’s objectives to investigate the underlying relationships. The moderating role of self-regulation enhances the goal-setting process by providing individuals with the capacity to adapt to changing demands, while the mediating role of cognitive load stress elucidates the pathways through which mindfulness practices influence performance outcomes. These theoretical insights not only underpin the hypothesized relationships but also provide a comprehensive framework for examining the intricate interplay between mindfulness, cognitive stress, and physical performance. By grounding this study in goal-setting theory, we establish a strong theoretical foundation that bridges psychological constructs with practical applications in physical education contexts.

Fig. 1

Conceptual model

Hypotheses development

Mindfulness practice refers to a set of psychological and cognitive techniques aimed at enhancing present-moment awareness and fostering a nonjudgmental attitude toward experiences [1]. These practices are grounded in mindfulness-based interventions and training programs that have been extensively explored in psychological and educational contexts. Mindfulness is commonly divided into four key dimensions: awareness, attention regulation, nonjudgmental attitude, and present-moment orientation [14, 15]. Awareness involves an individual’s capacity to recognize internal and external stimuli, fostering a heightened understanding of bodily sensations, emotions, and thoughts [16]. Attention regulation, a core component of mindfulness, enables individuals to maintain focus on the present moment and redirect attention from distractions, thus improving cognitive efficiency [17]. The nonjudgmental attitude dimension emphasizes observing thoughts and experiences without labeling them as positive or negative, reducing emotional reactivity and fostering acceptance [18]. Finally, present-moment orientation involves fully engaging with current experiences, allowing individuals to detach from past regrets or future anxieties and focus on the task at hand [19]. Together, these dimensions offer a holistic approach to enhancing cognitive and emotional well-being.

Cognitive load stress, on the other hand, refers to the psychological strain experienced when the demands of a task exceed an individual’s cognitive capacity [5]. Rooted in cognitive load theory [6], this construct highlights the detrimental effects of excessive mental effort on information processing and task performance. Cognitive load stress often manifests in situations requiring simultaneous attention to multiple stimuli, leading to mental fatigue, reduced focus, and impaired decision-making [5]. In educational and performance-based settings, excessive cognitive load has been shown to hinder learning and physical outcomes, emphasizing the need for interventions that mitigate this stress [20]. Recent studies have pointed to mindfulness practices as an effective strategy for reducing cognitive load stress, enabling individuals to manage mental demands more efficiently [21].

The relationship between mindfulness practices and cognitive load stress has been well-documented in recent literature. Mindfulness practices enhance an individual’s ability to regulate attention and maintain present-moment focus, thereby reducing the cognitive demands associated with multitasking and mental distractions [8]. For instance, Querstret et al. [21] found that individuals trained in mindfulness exhibited lower levels of cognitive load stress when completing complex tasks, as these practices foster greater mental clarity and emotional resilience. Furthermore, the nonjudgmental attitude cultivated through mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity to stressors, preventing the escalation of cognitive stress during demanding activities [18]. By integrating present-moment orientation into daily practices, individuals can better allocate cognitive resources to immediate tasks [19], avoiding the cognitive fatigue often caused by overthinking and task-switching. These findings suggest that mindfulness practices not only alleviate the symptoms of cognitive load stress but also address its underlying causes by restructuring cognitive and emotional processes.

In the context of physical education, where cognitive and physical demands often intersect, mindfulness practices have been shown to significantly reduce cognitive load stress. A recent study by Incagli et al. [22] demonstrated that mindfulness training programs for athletes improved their ability to manage stress during high-pressure situations, leading to enhanced task performance. These findings align with the theoretical foundations of mindfulness, suggesting that present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance are particularly effective in mitigating the mental strain caused by cognitive overload. By cultivating mindfulness practices, individuals can develop a stronger capacity to manage cognitive load stress, ultimately enhancing their overall performance in both cognitive and physical domains. Hence,

H1

Higher levels of mindfulness practices are associated with lower levels of cognitive load stress.

Physical performance, in the context of physical education (PE), refers to an individual’s ability to effectively engage in physical tasks, including strength, endurance, coordination, and agility [23]. It encompasses both the physiological and psychological dimensions of physical activity, highlighting the interconnectedness of cognitive and physical processes in achieving optimal outcomes. In PE, physical performance is not solely determined by physical fitness but also by cognitive factors such as focus, decision-making, and the ability to manage stress [20]. Effective physical performance requires the integration of mental and physical resources, particularly in activities that demand sustained attention and complex motor skills [24].

Theoretically, the relationship between cognitive load stress and physical performance can be explained through cognitive load theory [6]. The theory posits that the human cognitive system has limited capacity, and when this capacity is overwhelmed by stress or excessive demands, task performance suffers. Empirical evidence supports this theoretical assertion. For instance, Ayres et al. [20] found that participants experiencing high cognitive load stress exhibited significant declines in physical performance, as measured by endurance and reaction time. Similarly, studies in sports psychology have demonstrated that athletes under cognitive stress perform poorly in tasks requiring precise coordination and quick decision-making, further validating the detrimental effects of cognitive load stress on physical performance [25].

In the context of PE, managing cognitive load stress is particularly critical, as physical activities often require the simultaneous processing of multiple stimuli, such as following instructions, maintaining coordination, and adapting to dynamic environments [26]. Recent research has shown that interventions aimed at reducing cognitive load stress, such as mindfulness practices and stress management techniques, significantly improve physical performance in PE settings [27]. These findings highlight the importance of addressing cognitive load stress to optimize physical outcomes. The theoretical and empirical alignment of this relationship provides a solid foundation for hypothesizing that cognitive load stress negatively impacts physical performance, particularly in physically and cognitively demanding contexts like PE. Hence,

H2

Higher levels of cognitive load stress are associated with lower levels of physical performance.

Subsequently, the role of cognitive load stress in the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance offers an intriguing perspective grounded in theoretical frameworks. Mindfulness practices, through their capacity to enhance present-moment focus and regulate attention [19], are hypothesized to alleviate cognitive load stress. This reduction in cognitive strain subsequently facilitates improved physical performance by enabling individuals to allocate their cognitive and physical resources more effectively. Goal-setting theory [12] provides a robust foundation for this assumption, as it emphasizes the interplay between cognitive clarity and goal-directed behavior in achieving performance outcomes. When individuals engage in mindfulness practices, they develop the ability to manage cognitive stressors [22], which often act as barriers to effective performance. Cognitive load stress, provides insight into the mechanism through which mindfulness practices exert their influence on physical performance. By reducing cognitive distractions and fostering emotional regulation, mindfulness practices create a psychological environment that supports the execution of physical tasks. This association underscores the idea that mindfulness practices are not only directly beneficial for performance but also indirectly impactful through their ability to address cognitive stress. Theoretically, it is proposed that mindfulness practices reduce cognitive load stress, which in turn enhances physical performance, providing a comprehensive framework to explore the indirect effects of mindfulness on task outcomes. Hence,

H3

Cognitive load stress mediates the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance, such that mindfulness practices reduce cognitive load stress, which in turn enhances physical performance.

In addition, self-regulation is expected to play a critical moderating role in the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance. Self-regulation, as defined by Zimmerman [9], refers to the capacity to monitor and adapt thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in pursuit of goals. This ability enables individuals to maintain discipline and resilience, even in high-demand situations, by controlling distractions and adjusting strategies to achieve optimal outcomes. Previous research has identified self-regulation as a significant moderator in various contexts, including educational achievement, workplace performance, and sports psychology. For instance, Wigfield [28] highlighted that self-regulation enhances goal achievement by promoting sustained effort and adaptability. Similarly, studies in sports contexts have demonstrated that self-regulated athletes perform better under pressure due to their capacity to maintain focus and manage stress effectively [29].

In the context of mindfulness practices, self-regulation is hypothesized to strengthen the positive effects of mindfulness on reducing cognitive load stress. While mindfulness practices inherently foster attention regulation and present-moment focus, individuals with higher self-regulation are better positioned to utilize these practices effectively. Their ability to maintain self-discipline enhances the application of mindfulness [30], enabling a more substantial reduction in cognitive load stress. For example, research in cognitive and emotional regulation has shown that self-regulation amplifies the benefits of mindfulness by fostering a more consistent focus on the present moment and mitigating the impact of stressors [19]. This suggests that self-regulation not only complements mindfulness practices but also magnifies their effectiveness in managing cognitive stress.

The interaction effect between mindfulness practices and self-regulation is also proposed to influence physical performance. While mindfulness practices improve physical performance by reducing stress and enhancing focus, self-regulated individuals are hypothesized to exhibit even greater benefits. Their ability to adapt behaviors and maintain consistency under challenging conditions enables them to translate mindfulness-induced cognitive clarity into tangible performance improvements [15]. Previous studies in sports and physical education have shown that self-regulation is a key factor in achieving peak performance, particularly when combined with interventions like mindfulness [14]. Applying these insights to the present context suggests that self-regulation strengthens the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance by promoting resilience and effective task execution.

Furthermore, the role of self-regulation is expected to extend to the mediated relationship between mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, and physical performance. While mindfulness practices reduce cognitive load stress, which subsequently enhances physical performance, self-regulated individuals are hypothesized to experience a more pronounced indirect effect [22]. Their ability to manage stress effectively enhances the pathway through which mindfulness practices influence physical outcomes. Studies in stress management and performance psychology have indicated that self-regulation moderates complex relationships involving stress and performance, highlighting its relevance in multifaceted models [31]. In this context, self-regulation is proposed to act as a critical moderator that amplifies both the direct and mediated effects of mindfulness practices, offering a nuanced understanding of their combined impact on cognitive and physical domains. Hence,

H4

Self-regulation moderates the relationship between mindfulness practices and cognitive load stress, such that the negative relationship between mindfulness practices and cognitive load stress is stronger for individuals with higher self-regulation.

H5

Self-regulation moderates the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance, such that the positive relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance is stronger for individuals with higher self-regulation.

H6

Self-regulation moderates the mediated relationship between mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, and physical performance, such that the indirect effect of mindfulness practices on physical performance through cognitive load stress is stronger for individuals with higher self-regulation.

Method

The study was conducted among university students in China, focusing on physical education students from various academic institutions. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed to students enrolled in physical education programs across multiple universities in China. The sampling technique employed was stratified random sampling to ensure representation from different academic levels and gender. Stratified random sampling involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups, or strata, based on specific characteristics (e.g., academic level or gender), and then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup to ensure proportionate representation [32]. This method was chosen to enhance the representativeness of the sample and reduce selection bias.

A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed to students enrolled in physical education programs across multiple universities in China. Participants were contacted through departmental emails, official university communication platforms, and in-person visits to classes and training sessions, ensuring diverse outreach. Participants were briefed about the purpose of the study before the data collection process. Ethical considerations were strictly followed to maintain the confidentiality and anonymity of all respondents. Informed consent was obtained from participants before they were provided with the questionnaire. The consent form outlined the voluntary nature of participation, assured that responses would be kept confidential, and provided an option to withdraw at any stage. Questionnaires were distributed both online and in hard copy form, depending on the convenience of the participants. Follow-up emails and reminders were sent to ensure a higher response rate, and the collection process was completed over a period of four weeks. The final response rate was 83%, resulting in 498 completed questionnaires being returned and used for analysis.

The demographic details of the respondents included gender, age, academic level, and weekly physical activity duration (Table 1). The sample consisted of 54% male and 46% female participants. The majority of the respondents (37%) were between the ages of 18 and 21, followed by 33% who were aged 22 to 25, and 30% who were above 25. In terms of academic level, 41% were undergraduate students, 33% were master’s students, and 26% were doctoral students. Regarding weekly physical activity, 29% of respondents engaged in less than 5 h of physical activity, 35% engaged in 5 to 10 h, and 36% reported more than 10 h of physical activity.

Table 1 Demographics

To address the concern of common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted. All measurement items were entered into an unrotated exploratory factor analysis. The results revealed that the first factor accounted for 34.7% of the total variance, which is well below the recommended threshold of 50%, indicating that common method bias is not a significant concern in this study.

Measures

The study utilized a self-reported questionnaire with items adapted from validated scales in prior research. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree.

Mindfulness practices

Mindfulness practices were assessed using a 16-item scale encompassing four dimensions: awareness, attention regulation, non-judgmental attitude, and present-moment orientation. Items were adapted from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale [33] and similar mindfulness measures used in educational contexts. An example item is, “I notice the sensations in my body during physical activities.” The scale demonstrated strong reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha (α) of 0.88.

Cognitive load stress

Cognitive load stress was measured using a 5-item scale adapted from the Cognitive Load Scale [34] and scales focusing on stress in physical education contexts [35]. A sample item is, “I feel mentally overloaded when managing multiple PE tasks simultaneously.” The scale exhibited good reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha (α) of 0.85.

Physical performance

Physical performance was assessed through a 5-item scale adapted from measures of physical education performance evaluation [36]. An example item is, “I perform PE tasks with precision and skill.” The scale showed high reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha (α) of 0.87.

Self-regulation

Self-regulation was measured using a 5-item scale adapted from Zimmerman’s [9] framework of self-regulated learning in physical activities. A representative item is, “I plan my approach to excel in PE tasks before starting them.” This scale demonstrated strong reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha (α) of 0.89.

Results

The study utilized SmartPLS 4.0.8 for data analysis, a variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM) approach widely recognized for its suitability in exploratory research and models with complex relationships. Structural equation modeling can be approached using either covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) or variance-based SEM (PLS-SEM), and the choice between them depends on the research context and objectives. CB-SEM, commonly associated with AMOS or LISREL, focuses on testing theoretical models with an emphasis on model fit and parameter estimation. It requires strict assumptions, such as multivariate normality and large sample sizes, and is typically employed for confirmatory research where the goal is to validate well-established theories [37].

In contrast, PLS-SEM, implemented using SmartPLS, is more flexible in handling non-normal data and small to medium sample sizes. It is particularly well-suited for predictive and exploratory research, as it focuses on maximizing explained variance (R²) in the dependent variables rather than achieving model fit. This study employed PLS-SEM due to its capacity to analyze complex models with latent constructs, its emphasis on predictive accuracy, and its ability to handle data characteristics such as multicollinearity. Furthermore, PLS-SEM’s iterative algorithm ensures robust estimates of path coefficients, making it a preferred choice for examining relationships in models like this one, which includes mediating and moderating variables. References such as Hair et al. [37] and Sarstedt et al. [38] highlight the advantages of PLS-SEM in situations where the primary goal is to explore relationships rather than confirm a pre-established theory.

Measurement model assessment

Reliability and validity of lower-order constructs

The measurement model assessment involved evaluating the reliability and validity of both lower-order and higher-order constructs. For lower-order constructs, the analysis was conducted using outer loadings, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) values. These indicators were assessed against established threshold values from the literature, ensuring robust measurement properties.

The outer loadings of items for all constructs exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.708 [37], except for a few items which were slightly below but within acceptable limits as they contributed meaningfully to the construct. The Cronbach’s alpha values for all constructs ranged between 0.860 and 0.890, indicating high internal consistency, as values above 0.70 are considered acceptable [39]. Composite reliability values were consistently above 0.870 and below the threshold of 0.95, further confirming internal reliability. The AVE values for all constructs exceeded the minimum requirement of 0.50, signifying adequate convergent validity as the constructs explained more than half of the variance of their indicators. These results are detailed in Table 2.

Table 2 Reliability and validity of LOCs

Discriminant validity using the HTMT criterion

To establish discriminant validity, the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations was assessed. As recommended by Henseler et al. [40], the HTMT values should be below 0.85 to confirm discriminant validity. All constructs in the model met this criterion, with HTMT values ranging between 0.213 and 0.736. This indicates that each construct is distinct from the others in the model. The detailed results are presented in Table 3, confirming the absence of multicollinearity and ensuring discriminant validity.

Table 3 Discriminant validity using HTMT criterion

Discriminant validity using the Fornell-Larcker criterion

Table 4 presents the discriminant validity of the constructs using the Fornell-Larcker criterion. According to this method, the square root of the AVE for each construct (shown diagonally in bold) should be greater than its correlations with other constructs. The results confirm adequate discriminant validity, as each construct’s AVE square root (e.g., AW = 0.732, AR = 0.782, PP = 0.811) exceeds its correlations with other constructs in the matrix. This indicates that each construct is distinct and captures a unique aspect of the model, ensuring the reliability of the measurement model for subsequent structural analysis.

Table 4 Discriminant validity using Fornell-Larcker criterion

Reliability and validity of the higher-order construct

For the higher-order construct, mindfulness practices, the measurement model assessed the reliability and validity of its subdimensions: awareness, attention regulation, non-judgmental attitude, and present-moment orientation. The outer loadings of these subdimensions ranged from 0.794 to 0.852, all meeting the recommended threshold. The Cronbach’s alpha for mindfulness practices was 0.870, composite reliability was 0.899, and the AVE value was 0.674, which exceeded the threshold of 0.50. These results indicate that the higher-order construct has strong internal consistency, reliability, and convergent validity, as shown in Table 5.

Table 5 Reliability and validity of HOC

Structural model assessment

The structural model assessment, shown in Table 6, was conducted to evaluate the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. The evaluation involved analyzing the path coefficients (beta values), t-values, and p-values for each hypothesis, as well as assessing the moderating and mediating effects within the model. The findings were interpreted in the context of existing literature to ensure theoretical and empirical alignment.

The first hypothesis posited that mindfulness practices negatively influence cognitive load stress. The analysis revealed a significant negative relationship, with a beta value of -0.540, a t-value of 11.251, and a p-value of 0.000. This result aligns with previous studies indicating that mindfulness practices reduce stress levels by enhancing present-moment awareness and lowering mental overload [19]. The findings confirm that mindfulness practices help individuals manage cognitive challenges more effectively, thereby reducing cognitive load stress.

The second hypothesis tested the relationship between cognitive load stress and physical performance. The results indicated a significant negative relationship, with a beta value of -0.492, a t-value of 7.935, and a p-value of 0.000. These findings are consistent with prior research demonstrating that increased cognitive load impairs physical performance by consuming critical cognitive resources required for effective task execution [41]. This highlights the importance of reducing cognitive stress to optimize physical performance, particularly in physically demanding contexts such as physical education.

The third hypothesis examined the mediating role of cognitive load stress in the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance. The results confirmed that mindfulness practices positively influence physical performance through their ability to reduce cognitive load stress, with a beta value of 0.372, a t-value of 7.154, and a p-value of 0.000. This finding corroborates prior studies emphasizing the indirect benefits of mindfulness practices on physical performance via stress reduction mechanisms [42]. This mediation highlights the role of mindfulness in promoting better outcomes by mitigating cognitive burdens.

The fourth hypothesis tested the interaction effect of mindfulness practices and self-regulation on cognitive load stress. The analysis revealed a significant moderating effect, with a beta value of -0.342, a t-value of 8.341, and a p-value of 0.000. This finding supports the notion that self-regulation amplifies the stress-reducing impact of mindfulness practices by enabling individuals to maintain better focus and control over their mental resources [27]. This moderating effect underscores the importance of self-regulation in enhancing the benefits of mindfulness practices for stress management.

The fifth hypothesis examined the interaction effect of mindfulness practices and self-regulation on physical performance. The results indicated a significant moderating effect, with a beta value of 0.314, a t-value of 8.263, and a p-value of 0.000. This finding aligns with studies that highlight the role of self-regulation in supporting physical performance by fostering resilience and consistency [43]. The interaction effect demonstrates that individuals with higher self-regulation can better leverage mindfulness practices to achieve improved physical outcomes.

The sixth hypothesis explored the combined moderating and mediating effects of mindfulness practices and self-regulation on the relationship between cognitive load stress and physical performance. The analysis revealed a significant combined effect, with a beta value of 0.336, a t-value of 7.636, and a p-value of 0.000. This result emphasizes the intricate interplay between mindfulness practices, self-regulation, and cognitive stress in shaping physical performance. Overall, the structural model assessment confirmed the validity of all hypothesized relationships, demonstrating the critical roles of mindfulness practices and self-regulation in managing cognitive load stress and improving physical performance. These findings provide valuable theoretical and practical insights into the application of mindfulness and self-regulation strategies in physical education contexts (see also Figs. 2, 3 and 4).

Fig. 2

Structural equation model

Table 6 Path model assessment

Fig. 3

Moderating role of self-regulation on cognitive load stress

Fig. 4

Moderating role of self-regulation on physical performance

Assessment of the predictive capability

The R-square and Q-square values, shown in Table 7, were assessed to evaluate the explanatory and predictive capabilities of the structural model. The R-square value represents the proportion of variance explained by the independent variables for the dependent variables. In this study, the R-square values for cognitive load stress and physical performance were 0.486 and 0.652, respectively. These values exceed the recommended threshold of 0.25 for moderate explanatory power [37], indicating that the model provides substantial explanation for the variance in the dependent variables.

The Q-square values were calculated using the blindfolding procedure, as proposed by Stone [44]. Q-square values assess the predictive relevance of the model, with values greater than zero indicating that the model has predictive relevance. The Q-square values for cognitive load stress and physical performance were 0.345 and 0.521, respectively, both of which are significantly above the threshold of 0.000. These results confirm that the model has a strong predictive capability for both constructs, as Q-square values above 0.50 are considered to demonstrate high predictive relevance [37].

Based on the R-square and Q-square values, the structural model exhibits both strong explanatory and predictive capabilities, ensuring its robustness and applicability in understanding the relationships between mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, self-regulation, and physical performance. This reinforces the utility of the model in physical education settings, offering valuable insights into enhancing student outcomes through mindfulness and self-regulation strategies.

Table 7 Assessment of predictive capability

Discussion

This study set out to investigate how mindfulness practices influence cognitive and physical outcomes in physical education settings, with a particular focus on the roles of cognitive load stress and self-regulation. Grounded in goal-setting theory [12] and stress and coping theory [9], the research aimed to uncover not only direct relationships but also the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions that shape these effects. To provide a structured and meaningful interpretation of the results, the discussion is organized by research objectives and corresponding hypotheses.

The first objective was to examine the association between mindfulness practices and cognitive load stress. The results supported H1, indicating that higher levels of mindfulness practices are associated with lower levels of cognitive load stress. This finding suggests that mindfulness—through present-moment awareness and attention regulation—helps individuals reduce mental distractions and manage task-related cognitive demands more effectively [4, 8]. It also reinforces previous research on the cognitive benefits of mindfulness in high-demand environments.

The second objective focused on the direct effect of cognitive load stress on physical performance. H2 was confirmed, as cognitive load stress was found to negatively impact physical performance. This result aligns with cognitive load theory [9], which asserts that excessive cognitive demands interfere with individuals’ capacity to perform physical tasks by overloading their working memory and depleting attentional resources.

The third objective explored whether cognitive load stress mediates the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance. The findings validated H3 by revealing a significant indirect effect, indicating that mindfulness enhances performance not just directly but also by alleviating cognitive stress. This suggests that mindfulness facilitates task efficiency by clearing cognitive space and enhancing resource allocation, which in turn supports improved physical execution [13].

The fourth objective examined whether self-regulation moderates the relationship between mindfulness practices and cognitive load stress. H4 was supported, as the negative relationship between mindfulness and cognitive load stress was stronger for individuals with higher levels of self-regulation. This implies that those who can effectively manage their emotions and attention are more capable of leveraging mindfulness techniques to reduce cognitive strain [14].

The fifth objective tested the moderating role of self-regulation on the relationship between mindfulness practices and physical performance. H5 was supported, revealing that self-regulation strengthens the positive impact of mindfulness on performance. This suggests that self-regulated individuals can better translate mindfulness-related cognitive clarity into tangible physical outcomes, even in demanding settings [17].

The final objective investigated the moderated mediation effect, specifically whether self-regulation influences the indirect pathway from mindfulness to physical performance through cognitive load stress. The analysis confirmed H6, showing that the indirect effect was stronger for individuals with high self-regulation. This result emphasizes the synergistic role of self-regulation in enhancing both the psychological and physical benefits of mindfulness practices.

Collectively, these findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how mindfulness and self-regulation interact to manage stress and improve physical performance in physical education contexts. The study offers a nuanced framework that accounts for both direct and conditional effects, providing evidence-based insights for performance enhancement strategies.

Theoretical implications

The theoretical implications of this study are rooted in the robust integration of mindfulness practices and self-regulation with the framework of cognitive load stress and physical performance. By leveraging well-established theories such as goal-setting theory [6] and stress and coping theory [9], this research offers a significant contribution to understanding the dynamics between mental processes and physical outcomes, particularly in the physical education context. The findings highlight the central role of mindfulness practices in reducing cognitive load stress and enhancing physical performance, providing a nuanced understanding of how these constructs interact. This aligns with earlier research that emphasized the importance of mindfulness in improving focus and reducing stress in educational and performance settings [45].

One of the key theoretical contributions of this study is the explanation of the mediating effect of cognitive load stress between mindfulness practices and physical performance. While previous studies have extensively explored the direct effects of mindfulness on various outcomes [1, 13, 21], the mediating role of cognitive load stress remains under-researched, particularly in the context of physical education. The findings confirm that mindfulness practices alleviate cognitive stress, which in turn improves physical performance. This mediating mechanism adds to the theoretical understanding of how mindfulness fosters enhanced performance through cognitive pathways, complementing earlier studies on stress reduction and task efficiency. By addressing this gap, the study provides a deeper explanation of how mindfulness practices can indirectly contribute to performance outcomes by mitigating mental overload.

Another theoretical implication stems from the moderating role of self-regulation. The study reveals that self-regulation amplifies the effects of mindfulness practices on both cognitive load stress and physical performance. This highlights the interactive dynamics between mindfulness and self-regulation, which have not been extensively tested in prior literature. Cellar et al. [31]; Williams et al. [29] emphasized self-regulation as a pivotal mechanism for achieving personal goals, and this study builds on that understanding by demonstrating how self-regulation strengthens the impact of mindfulness on reducing cognitive stress and enhancing performance. Moreover, the interaction effect between mindfulness practices and self-regulation on physical performance and cognitive load stress offers fresh insights into the synergistic potential of these constructs. This finding advances theoretical discussions by suggesting that interventions aiming to enhance mindfulness should also integrate self-regulation strategies for optimal outcomes.

The relevance of this study is further heightened by its contextual focus on physical education. While mindfulness and self-regulation have been widely studied in academic [46] and workplace settings [47], their combined effects in physical education remain underexplored. Physical education is inherently tied to performance under cognitive and physical demands [25], making it an ideal context to examine the dual influence of mindfulness and self-regulation. The results demonstrate that mindfulness practices reduce the mental strain experienced during physical tasks, thereby supporting better physical performance. This extends the application of mindfulness from predominantly mental health and academic contexts to a more holistic understanding that includes physical education and performance.

Overall, this study offers a well-rounded theoretical contribution by integrating mindfulness practices, cognitive load stress, self-regulation, and physical performance into a cohesive framework. By addressing gaps in the literature, testing novel mediation and moderation effects, and contextualizing the findings within physical education, the research advances theoretical understanding and opens new avenues for future studies. The insights generated by this study have the potential to inform both theory and practice, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between mindfulness, cognitive processes, and performance outcomes.

Practical implications

The practical implications of this study are highly relevant for educators, trainers, and practitioners in the field of physical education. The findings emphasize the importance of incorporating mindfulness practices into physical education programs to reduce cognitive load stress and enhance physical performance. By fostering present-moment awareness and emotional regulation, mindfulness practices can help students manage mental overload and focus more effectively on physical tasks. Educators can design mindfulness-based interventions, such as guided breathing exercises, body scans, and mindfulness meditation, to create a supportive environment that enhances both mental well-being and physical capabilities.

Additionally, the moderating role of self-regulation highlights the need for integrating self-regulation strategies alongside mindfulness practices. Self-regulation training, including goal-setting exercises and self-monitoring techniques, can amplify the benefits of mindfulness by enabling students to better manage their mental resources and sustain focus during physical activities. Trainers and educators can encourage students to set realistic performance goals, monitor their progress, and adapt their strategies as needed, which will not only improve performance but also build resilience in high-stress situations. These practices are especially relevant in competitive or high-demand physical education settings, where students often face cognitive and physical challenges simultaneously.

This study also emphasizes the value of a holistic approach to physical education that considers both mental and physical aspects of performance. Institutions can benefit from integrating mindfulness and self-regulation training into their curricula, ensuring that students develop essential skills for managing stress and improving performance. Moreover, these findings can inform policy-making by advocating for the inclusion of mental training components in physical education programs. By equipping students with tools to manage stress and enhance performance, this approach can foster lifelong habits of mental and physical well-being, ultimately contributing to better educational outcomes and personal growth.

Limitations and future research directions

While this study provides valuable insights into the interplay between mindfulness practices, self-regulation, cognitive load stress, and physical performance, certain limitations must be acknowledged. First, the data were collected from university students in China, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or cultural contexts. Future research could replicate this study across diverse demographic groups and educational systems to enhance the external validity of the results. Second, the cross-sectional design of the study restricts the ability to infer causal relationships. Longitudinal or experimental designs would provide a more robust understanding of how mindfulness and self-regulation influence performance over time. Third, while the model captures key variables, other potential moderators such as motivation and self-efficacy, and mediators like social support or emotional regulation, were not explored. Future studies could incorporate these factors to offer additional insights and further enrich the proposed framework. Expanding the model to include such factors would provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms at play and further enrich the theoretical and practical contributions of this research.

Conclusion

This study highlights the critical role of mindfulness practices and self-regulation in managing cognitive load stress and enhancing physical performance in physical education. By demonstrating the mediating effect of cognitive load stress and the moderating role of self-regulation, the findings provide a comprehensive understanding of how mental processes and personal traits interact to influence performance outcomes. The robust measurement and structural model assessments confirm the validity and predictive capability of the proposed framework. These results not only contribute to the theoretical discourse on mindfulness and self-regulation but also offer practical strategies for educators and practitioners to improve student outcomes. Ultimately, the study underlines the importance of integrating mental and physical training components in education, paving the way for holistic approaches to enhance performance and well-being.