Does mindfulness matter on employee outcomes? Exploring its effects via perceived stress

Abstract

Background

This study investigates the relationships between mindfulness, employees’ well-being, and intentions to quit their jobs and further examines the mediating role of perceived stress in these relationships. Drawing on the Job Demand-Resources model, we aim to contribute to understanding how mindfulness can impact employee well-being and turnover intentions in a non-Western organizational setting.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey study was conducted with 205 full-time white-collar employees. The study used an online questionnaire consisting of the Perceived Stress Scale, the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, the Intention to Quit Scale, and the Employee Well-Being Scale. The data were analyzed using a full-latent model with structural equation modeling to investigate the relationships between the variables.

Results

The findings indicate that mindfulness is crucial in influencing employees’ turnover intentions and well-being through perceived stress levels. Mindfulness is associated with lower levels of perceived stress, which in turn is positively linked to employee well-being and negatively linked to turnover intentions.

Conclusions

This study underscores the significance of mindfulness in the workplace, particularly in non-western organizational settings. By promoting mindfulness, organizations can potentially enhance employee well-being and reduce turnover intentions, fostering a more positive and productive work environment. The implications of these findings suggest that mindfulness interventions could be beneficial for organizations aiming to improve employee mental health and retention.

In today’s fast-paced and dynamic workplace, the interplay between employee well-being and organizational outcomes has gained significant attention from researchers and practitioners alike. Amid rising levels of perceived stress and turnover intentions, organizations increasingly seek strategies to foster resilience, employee well-being, and mental health. This is evidenced by the results of the American Psychological Association (APA) 2022 Work and Well-being Survey, which reveals that a majority of employees value and seek out workplace mental health support (https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/ work-well-being/2022- mental health support). According to the same survey, 81% of employees believe that how businesses support mental health, and well-being will be essential to their future employment decisions. This trend also reflects broader recognition among EU institutions, policymakers, and organizations.

To address challenges related to workplace well-being, the current study focuses on mindfulness and, adopts the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model [1] as its primary theoretical framework. The JD-R model posits that employee well-being and organizational outcomes arise from the striking balance between job demands (e.g., stressors) and job resources (e.g., personal resources, support). Mindfulness, defined as “the situation of being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present with a nonjudging stance” [2] is positioned as a critical personal resource that enables employees to manage and cope with the job demands effectively, thereby enhancing well-being and reducing turnover intentions. Mindfulness practices could significantly contribute to creating a healthier and more sustainable community by cultivating awareness and fostering the skills necessary to address various challenges [3].

Previous literature recognized the prevalence and importance of mindfulness in various contexts including both clinical and nonclinical samples [4,5,6,7]. In occupational settings, recent meta-analyses [8] and integrative reviews [9, 10] have provided some evidence on linking mindfulness to enhance employee resilience [11], employee relationships, job satisfaction [12], employee engagement [13]; reduced turnover intentions [14] and stress [8, 15]. Despite these findings, there is still a gap in understanding the mechanism of how mindfulness influences employees’ well-being and turnover intentions through workplace stress mechanisms [8, 14, 16,17,18].

The current study aims to contribute to the role of mindfulness in the workplace and to provide a theoretical and empirical examination of its effects on employee outcomes. We explore the intricate relationship between mindfulness, perceived stress, employee wellbeing, and turnover intention, shedding light on how cultivating mindfulness can serve as a shielding factor against the detrimental consequences of stress while promoting a healthier, more committed workforce. Employee well-being and turnover intention were selected as workplace outcomes due to their centrality to organizational sustainability [19]. Well-being- encompassing emotional, mental, and physical health [20] reflects employees’ holistic functioning at work [21], while turnover intention is a critical predictor of organizational costs and productivity loss [22]. Within the JD-R model, we posit mindfulness as a personal resource that plays a crucial role in helping employees navigate job demands and mitigate stress, thereby improving well-being and reducing turnover intentions. Given that stress is a key driver of both employee well-being and intention to quit, understanding how mindfulness mitigates stress as a job demand and improves these outcomes is essential for developing effective workplace interventions.

The motivation for this study stems from two gaps in existing research. First, while the literature provides evidence regarding the studies examining the impact of mindfulness on mental health [23] and job attitudes [24, 25], they have not sufficiently examined the mechanisms based on the premises of the JD-R framework. Thus, we address this gap by investigating how mindfulness, as a personal resource, reduces perceived stress—a key mediator—to improve well-being and lower turnover intentions as important employee outcomes. By unpacking those associations, this study can guide practitioners about how mindfulness as a personal resource could mitigate the adverse effects of work stress and improve employee well-being.

Second, while mindfulness has been extensively studied in Western contexts [14], its applicability to non-Western populations remains underexplored. This study is conducted in a non-Western setting including a sample of Turkish employees working in various jobs. Given Turkiye’s high-stress work environment, job insecurity and economic fluctuations, employee turnover rates [26, 27], long working hours, and work-life imbalances [28], mindfulness could serve as a valuable tool to enhance employee well-being and retention. Even though we do not explicitly adopt a cultural comparison perspective, this study provides insights into mindfulness in a non-Western work environment, broadening the application of the JD-R model across a different socio-cultural setting.

Theoretical framework and hypotheses development

Mindfulness and Well-being

Mindfulness, a concept rooted in ancient Buddhist traditions, has garnered significant attention in contemporary psychological research and practice. Broadly, the concept refers to the practice of deliberately focusing on the present moment with an attitude of openness, curiosity, and acceptance [29] and without judgment [30]. In a more detailed definition, Glomb et al. [6] specify mindfulness as “the process of paying attention to what is happening at the moment – both internal (thoughts, bodily sensations) and external stimuli (physical and social environment) – and observing those stimuli without judgment or evaluation, and without assigning meaning to them”.

Based on their historical roots, there are generally two methods for elaborating mindfulness: Western and Eastern [31, 32], and these two approaches complement each other. Eastern mindfulness, which has Buddhist roots, emphasizes the interconnectedness of the individual with their environment as well as the importance of present-moment awareness, acceptance, and nonjudgment [29]. On the other hand, Western mindfulness tends to be more individualistic and intrapersonal in focus and is concerned primarily with cognitive processes such as attention regulation, metacognition, and emotional control [2, 33]. Nevertheless, despite these differences, both Eastern and Western conceptualizations emphasize the importance of present-moment attention, a nonjudgmental and accepting stance toward one’s experiences [32].

With mindfulness gaining popularity in Western psychology, empirical research to elucidate its mechanisms, applications, and integration into interventions is continuously growing [34, 35]. Writings on mindfulness in contemplative traditions have long maintained that there are several advantages of living completely in the present, one of which is improved well-being [31]. Moreover, mindfulness is seen both as a trait that varies in strength, across situations and persons [6, 12], and as a psychological state that differs from moment to moment within individuals [12, 36, 37]. Those characteristics make mindfulness researchers particularly interested in well-being due to mindfulness practices and why it has become so important in work settings.

As our outcome variable, well-being refers to the “individuals’ subjective and global judgment of whether they experience the relative presence of positive emotions, the relative absence of negative emotions, and satisfaction with their lives” [20]. Scholars have evaluated well-being with two fundamental philosophical tenets: subjective (hedonism) and psychological (eudaimonia). While subjective well-being refers to the subjective assessment of one’s own life in which positive and negative affect coexist [20], psychological well-being refers to positive psychological functionality [38] with an emphasis on knowing and accepting one’s limits, having a life purpose, positive relationships with others, and a desire to improve oneself [39]. This study focuses on employee well-being based on the theoretical framework of Page and Vella-Brodrick’s [40] model, which comprises subjective, psychological, and workplace well-being. Accordingly, employee well-being refers to “the overall quality of an employee’s experience and functioning at work” [21, 41].

Concerning the effect of mindfulness on employee well-being, studies generally suggest that mindfulness has a range of beneficial effects on individuals and fosters a healthier and more productive work environment, directly contributing to employee well-being [2, 5, 15, 42]. For example, positive measures of employee well-being, such as job satisfaction [12, 43] and physical and psychological health [6], are positively correlated with employee mindfulness. Similarly, a negative association between employee mindfulness and unfavorable measures of employee well-being, such as emotional exhaustion [12] has been reported. Those studies argue that mindfulness reduces the duration of emotional reactions, which speeds up the process of recovering from unpleasant emotions [44]. Research also suggests that mindfulness interventions can reduce workplace stress and burnout [45], and improve job satisfaction and work engagement [13. A review by Allen et al. [46] revealed that mindfulness-based interventions lead to various positive outcomes, such as enhanced well-being, reduced stress, and increased subjective happiness. Similarly, in a recent meta-analysis by Lomas et al. [10], mindfulness was found to be associated with different measures of positive well-being, including job satisfaction [12, 43], professional quality of life [47], and subjective well-being [48]. Within the JD-R framework, we posit mindfulness serving as a resource that enables employees to reframe demanding situations at work, thereby preserving well-being. Based on the previous findings, we propose that:

H1

Mindfulness positively relates to employee well-being.

Mindfulness—Perceived stress—Employee well-being

One promising mediating mechanism that links mindfulness to employee well-being is perceived stress. Perceived stress refers to the degree to which situations in one’s life are appraised as stressful. It is a subjective measure of stress considering an individual’s perceptions and coping abilities [49]. It particularly arises when the individual appraises the situation as unpredictable, uncontrollable, and insufficient resources are available to cope with the problem [49,50,51].

Perceived stress is crucial because it affects how stressors impact an individual’s mental and physical health. Empirical evidence has consistently revealed a negative association between self-reported mindfulness and perceived stress [52,53,54,55]. Studies on mindfulness have shown that it reduces stress and anxiety [44, 56] and improves emotion regulation [7].

The JD-R framework theoretically explains the connection between mindfulness and perceived stress [1]. JD-R, as a stressor‒strain model [57], suggests that stress is a reaction to an imbalance between demands on the individual and a person’s available resources. Individuals’ resources, such as personal values, personality traits, and other individual characteristics, can enhance their ability to cope with stress and mitigate the negative effects of job demands [58, 59]. Accordingly, mindfulness can be treated as a personal resource offering sufficient resources to employees [60,61,62,63] to manage job demands effectively. Thus, mindfulness can enable individuals to regulate their emotions, enhance their resilience, and increase their ability to recover from stressful situations more effectively. In studies including working employees, mindfulness and mindfulness-based practices have been associated with lower levels of stress [64, 65], burnout [66], and a decrease in negative mood states [67]. According to their experimental study, Axelsen et al. [68] showed that employees’ reported stress levels significantly decreased when they used a daily 10-minute mindfulness application. Baer [34] also noted that mindfulness practices are inversely related to perceived stress, suggesting that mindfulness helps individuals appraise stressful situations less negatively. Thus, we propose the following:

H2

Mindfulness negatively relates to perceived stress.

Stress is a result of the interaction between an individual and their environment, and it is mediated by the individual’s appraisal of the situation and their coping mechanisms. In this regard, mindfulness can be viewed as an effective coping mechanism that alters the appraisal process, reducing perceived stress and thus enhancing well-being. We propose that mindfulness reduces stress by altering cognitive appraisals in a way that mindful employees are less likely to perceive demands as threats and more likely to deploy adaptive coping strategies [55, 69]. This aligns with the JD-R model’s emphasis on resources mitigating demand-related strain.

Several studies have explicitly examined the mediating role of perceived stress. For instance, Sharma and Rush [69] investigated the effects of a mindfulness intervention on employee stress and well-being. They reported that reductions in perceived stress significantly mediated the relationship between mindfulness and improvements in well-being. Some studies have revealed that mindfulness-based practices can promote psychological well-being by lessening distracting thoughts and behaviors [70] and relieving emotional disorders [71]. Similarly, the research of Weinstein et al. [55], which included four studies, demonstrated that mindful individuals have more non-threatening stress appraisals and report less use of avoidant coping strategies. In sum, those studies suggest that mindfulness alleviates perceived stress, which in turn enhances well-being. Thus, we propose the following:

H3

Mindfulness increases employee well-being via perceived stress.

Mindfulness and turnover intention

Turnover intention refers to an employee’s willingness to quit their organization [22]. The literature shows that mindful employees, who can self-regulate their emotions and behaviors, tend to have lower turnover intentions [72, 73]. Theoretically, the JD-R model posits that insufficient resources exacerbate turnover intentions. As a resource, mindfulness equips employees to manage demands, thereby reducing stress-driven turnover [14].

The negative relationship between mindfulness and turnover intentions is found to be significant in studies conducted among call-center employees [14], service employees and managers [73], physical educators [62], civil servants [74], nurses [75], teachers [76] and in blue-collar workers in monotonous jobs [25]. Given the nonjudgmental nature of mindful individuals, scholars argue that mindful individuals are less likely to turnover since they can effectively manage stressful demands at work [73]. This is most likely because mindfulness helps individuals control their emotions and thoughts more effectively, improves self-awareness, and allows calmer responses to challenges [62, 77]. Thus, we propose the following:

H4

Mindfulness negatively relates to employees’ turnover intentions.

Mindfulness, perceived stress, and turnover intention

Despite increasing evidence indicating the importance of mindfulness in the workplace and turnover intentions [17, 78], few studies have focused on the mediating mechanisms underlying the mindfulness-turnover intention relationship. This paper proposes that mindfulness affects employees’ turnover intentions through its influence on perceived stress. Perceived stress is well recognized as an essential element determining employees’ turnover intentions in various jobs [79, 80]. For instance, Gardulf et al. [79] reported that one-third of nurses, intending to leave their positions, identified psychological stress and demanding aspects of their work as the main reasons. Likewise, Tetteh et al. [80] revealed a negative relationship between perceived stress and turnover intentions in a sample of mining sector employees. When employees experience high levels of stress and perceive their work environment as excessively demanding, they are more inclined to quit their jobs.

Consistent with the abovementioned research, perceived stress is expected to mediate the relationship between mindfulness and turnover intentions such that mindfulness primarily affects perceived stress, mitigating employees’ turnover intentions. The proposed mechanism aligns with the stress and coping theory and job demands-resources (JD-R) model. Accordingly, individuals’ appraisal of stressors and their ability to cope with them play crucial roles in determining their behavioral outcomes, such as turnover intentions. As a personal resource, mindfulness alters the appraisal process and, in turn, reduces perceived stress. In particular, individuals with higher levels of mindfulness may observe situations and evaluate cues in a nonjudgmental, nonreactive manner [56], leading to a more balanced appraisal of social situations. Similarly, in work settings, employees can cultivate resilience by decreasing emotional and physiological reactivity through mindfulness [74], which may mitigate the tendency to perceive ambiguous or challenging situations as inherently stressful. The JD-R model suggests that stress mediates the relationship between resources and behavioral outcomes. By reducing perceived stress, mindfulness diminishes employees’ motivation to leave their jobs [79]. Hence, it is reasonable to expect that mindfulness might alleviate perceived stress and, thus, may result in lower levels of turnover intentions due to stress-related factors. So:

H5

Mindfulness decreases turnover intentions via perceived stress.

Method

Participants and procedure

The study data were collected from 205 full-time white-collar employees working in various organizations located in Türkiye. The vast majority of the participants were employed in the education, healthcare, and information technology sectors. The participants were approached using both convenience and snowball sampling methods. Accordingly, we first reached out to our professional network via email and, then requested them to further disseminate the survey link among their counterparts. The survey link contained a brief introduction about the study, the anonymity and confidentiality of the responses, and the information that the data will only be used for research purposes. Among the 295 participants who consented to complete the online survey, 205 valid responses were recorded after the incomplete responses were eliminated. Among those 205 participants, 56.6% were women, 63.1% were married, and the mean age of the participants was 34.51 years (SD = 10.4). The average tenure of the employee with their current employer was 5.46 years (SD = 7.59).

Measures

The questionnaire used in the present study included an online questionnaire to collect data comprising the variables of mindfulness, perceived stress, employee well-being, intention to quit, and demographics (gender, age, education, working status, marital status). All the measures were based on existing scales. The scale of Intention to quit was translated into Turkish and back-translated into English, in line with the procedure of Brislin [81]. The translation and back translation were conducted by two Turkish bilingual academics. Before data collection, ethical approval was gathered from the Ethical Commission Board of Hacettepe University (Number: 35853172/ 433–2311), and all participants provided signed an online informed consent form before inclusion in the study.

Mindful attention awareness scale (MAAS)

Brown and Ryan [2] developed the 15-item self-report measure to assess the overall score for mindfulness. This scale is a brief, well-validated measurement tool with strong psychometric qualities and it has been widely used in previous studies with both clinical and non-clinical groups [82]. The sample items include “I find myself preoccupied with the future or the past”’ and “I find myself doing things without paying attention”. The response format was a 6-point Likert scale (1-Almost always to 6-Almost never) and aggregated through summing. Higher scores denote higher levels of mindfulness. The MAAS was adapted into Turkish by Özyeşil et al. [83]. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this scale was 0.88.

Perceived stress scale (PSS)

The PSS, a self-report measure developed by Cohen et al. [49], assesses whether individuals perceive their lives as stressful and overwhelming. The scale includes two factors: perceived distress and perceived coping. The sample items include “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control important things in your life?”, “In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?” and “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control important things in your life?”. The response format was a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0-never to 4-fairly often. Higher scores represent higher levels of perceived stress. The Turkish translation and the adaptation of the instrument were conducted by Çelik Örücü and Demir [84]. In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.82.

Intention to quit

We used Landau and Hammer’s [85] Intention to Quit scale to assess employees’ turnover intentions. This scale includes 3 items (e.g., “I am seriouslythinking about quitting my job”, and “As soon as I can find a better job, I will leave this company”). The response format was a 5-point Likert scale (1- always to 5-never). Higher scores represent not quitting the organization. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability for this scale in the current sample was reported as 0.89.

Employee Well-Being scale (EWB)

We used Zheng et al.’s [41] 18-item Employee Well-being Scale to assess participants’ well-being. The scale consists of three dimensions: life well-being (e.g., “Most of the time, I do feel real happiness”), workplace well-being (e.g., “In general, I feel fairly satisfied with my present job”), and psychological well-being (e.g., “I generally feel good about myself, and I’m confident”). The scale can be used as a single factor indicating employee well-being [41]. The response format was a 5-point Likert scale (1-completely disagree, 7-completely agree). Higher scores represent higher levels of well-being. The Turkish translation and adaptation of the instrument were conducted by Bayhan Karapinar et al. [86]. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability for the scale was 0.96.

Data analysis

Preliminary analyses

The data were initially screened for the inspection of missing values, outliers, and normality. There were no outliers, and no missing values were reported. Univariate normality was assessed with skewness and kurtosis values. All the values were found to be less than 3.29 (in absolute terms), as Tabachnick & Fidell [87] suggested, indicating that the data distribution was normal.

Harman’s one-way test was conducted to check for common method bias. The examination of the unrotated factor analysis revealed 9 factors with a variance of 28.3% extracted by the first factor, which is less than the acceptable limit of 50% [88]. As a result, no general factor was apparent. In addition to the Harman test, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA’s) were conducted to evaluate the measurement model which, included both substantive latent factors and a method factor to account for common method variance. The method factor was specified to load onto all observed items to capture variance attributable to the self-report method. To further evaluate the necessity of the method factor, a nested model without the method factor was tested. The fit indices of the four-factor full-latent measurement model and the alternative model with an additional Method Factor were compared to assess the impact of common method variance. As a result, the fit indices of this alternative model were significantly worse, (Δχ² (2) = 11.99; p <.05), again refuting the existence of common method variance in the study.

As discussed previously, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFAs) to examine the factorial structure of the measurement items, in which all scale items were specified to load on their respective constructs (i.e. mindfulness, perceived stress, employee well-being, and intention to quit). The goodness-of-fit index (GFI), chi-square/df, comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker‒Lewis index (TLI), and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), statistics by Kline [89] were scrutinized to assess the adequacy of the measurement model. The second-order factors were specified for employee well-being and perceived stress scales, which were composed of three and two sub-factors respectively. Initial results indicated a relatively poor fit to data (X²/df = 2.20; GFI = 0.68; CFI = 0.83; TLI = 0.82; RMSEA = 0.08). Factor loadings of two mindfulness items were below the 0.40 threshold, suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell [87]. When two items were removed, the model improved substantially (X²/df = 1.92; GFI = 0.89; CFI = 0.90; TLI = 0.87; RMSEA = 0.06). All factor loadings were found to be significant and above the threshold level of 0.40. As for the well-being scale, life well-being (β = 0.84; p <.05), workplace well-being (β = 0.85; p <.05), and psychological well-being subscales (β = 0.94; p <.05) loaded significantly on the higher order factor which is employee wellbeing. As for the perceived stress scale, perceived distress (β = 0.52; p <.05) and perceived coping (β = 0.90; p <.05) loaded significantly on the perceived stress higher order factor. Therefore, composite scores for mindfulness (13 items), perceived stress scale (10 items), intention to quit (3 items), and employee-wellbeing (18 items) were calculated by taking the average of the items measuring the relevant construct. The factor loadings of the measurement items can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1 Factor loadings of the measurement items

The descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients, and intercorrelations among the variables are shown in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, employee well-being is positively correlated with mindfulness (r =.45, p =.001) and intention (not) to quit (r =.54, p =.001) and negatively correlated with PSS (r = −.43, p =.001). The intention (not) to quit is positively correlated with mindfulness (r =.22, p =.001) and negatively correlated with PSS (r = −.26, p =.001). These correlations provided initial support for the proposed hypotheses.

Table 2 Descriptive analysis and Zero-Order correlations among the study variables

Hypothesis testing

The relationships between the variables were analyzed via a full-latent model with structural equation modeling (SEM), where perceived stress mediated mindfulness and employee outcomes of employee well-being and the intention (not) to quit. The model simultaneously tested the mediating role of perceived stress in the mindfulness–employee well-being linkage and mindfulness-intention (not) to quit linkage (see Fig. 1). Accordingly, the model fit the data adequately, and the fit indices of the model were satisfactory (X²/df = 1.92; GFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.88; TLI = 0.87; RMSEA = 0.07 and SRMR = 0.06).

Fig. 1

The Hypothesized Mediation Model. Note. PSS: Perceived Stress Scale; EWB = Employee Well-being; Int. (not) quit = Intention not to quit, LWB = Life Well-being, PWB = Psychological Well-being

Regarding our model, the total, direct, and indirect effects of the model are presented in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, in terms of direct effects, the path from mindfulness to employee well-being was significant (b = 0.79; β = 0.39, p <.01), rendering H1 supported. Moreover, the paths from mindfulness to perceived stress (b = − 0.61; β = − 0.51, p <.01) and from perceived stress to employee well-being (b = − 0.47; β = − 0.29, p <.01) were significant. Thus, the indirect effects were tested with a bias-corrected percentile bootstrapping method with confidence intervals (95% confidence intervals) based on 2000 bootstrap samples. The bootstrap results for the indirect effect were significant (as the bias-corrected percentile confidence intervals did not include zero), confirming the findings of the path analysis (indirect effect: b = 0.28; 95% CI = [0.08, 0.20]). Thus, the findings support H3, which states that mindfulness influences employee well-being via perceived stress.

Table 3 Results of Full-Latent variable structural model

For the other outcome variable in our model, the direct path from mindfulness to intention (not) to quit was not significant (b = 0.27; β = 0.13, p =.15), revealing H4 unsupported. The direct path from perceived stress to intention (not) to quit turned out to be significant (b = -0,45; β = -0.27, p <.01), In terms of indirect effect, the indirect effect of mindfulness to intention (not) to quit via perceived stress was significant (indirect effect: b = 0.27% CI = [0.08, 0.53]). In summary, these findings confirmed H2 and H5 but failed to support H4.

Discussion

While research on mindfulness has predominantly highlighted its positive effects on individuals [2, 9, 17, 56], the underlying mechanisms linking mindfulness to well-being and turnover intentions remain relatively unclear in work settings. Given that employee well-being and turnover intentions are crucial factors in predicting the long-term success of organizations [14, 90, 91], gaining deeper insights into the underlying mechanisms of how mindfulness influences these organizational and employee outcomes becomes essential. Thus, the present study addresses this gap and contributes to the extant literature by examining the mediating role of perceived stress in the relationships between mindfulness, employee well-being, and turnover intentions in a non-Western organizational setting based on the premises of the JD-R model. By unraveling these connections, this study provides insights for organizations striving to create supportive and sustainable work environments.

We discuss the role of mindfulness with respect to two organizational outcomes. Pertaining to well-being outcome, the findings provide evidence for linking mindfulness to employee well-being directly and indirectly. Consistent with our prior assumptions, the results suggest that mindfulness acts, as a resource, helping employees maintain balance, reduce stress, and improve prioritization skills [92]. This direct link between mindfulness and well-being aligns with the findings of previous studies [5, 17, 42, 93,94,95,96]. This also aligns with a recent study that found that resilience and mindfulness increase life satisfaction in the Turkish adult population [97].

Our proposition regarding the mediating role of perceived stress in the linkage between mindfulness and well-being has also gained support. Mindfulness was found to negatively influence perceived stress, which in turn is associated with greater employee well-being. Consistent with the JD-R model, mindfulness, as a resource, offers employees breathing room from psychological distress by enabling them to concentrate on the current moment [43], serving their ability to alleviate negative emotional states [2]. It indicates that mindfulness is a significant factor in managing stress levels and thereby impacts the well-being of employees. In other words, mindfulness increases awareness of thoughts and emotions in stressful circumstances, enabling employees to handle stressors effectively [98, 99]. This mediating effect is consistent with previous findings showing that mindfulness decreases employees’ perceived stress levels and manifests itself in higher levels of well-being [93] and work engagement [100]. Additionally, in the Turkish sample, Irak et al. [101] showed that mindfulness predicts psychological well-being by influencing uncertainty tolerance during COVID-19 lockdowns. They found that employees with higher mindfulness levels see their situation as less dangerous, which lowers their stress, anxiety, and burnout.

Concerning the turnover intention outcome, the empirical findings support the indirect effect of mindfulness on turnover intention through perceived stress, which aligns with the findings of Reb et al. [14]. Accordingly, mindful individuals tend to remain attentive to present experiences and approach them with acceptance rather than judgment [102]. Thus, high levels of mindfulness appear to promote mental health and are linked to reduced levels of perceived stress, which deters employees from searching for work outside of their company. As a result, mindful individuals can adapt more flexibly to their circumstances and are more likely to perceive stressful events at work as manageable [103], thereby reducing their intentions to quit their organization. The mediating effect of perceived stress is also consistent with earlier studies. Using 503 full-time employees, Zivnuska et al. [43] revealed that mindfulness affects turnover intention via psychological distress. Similarly, Singh et al. [104] reported that stress acts as a mediator between mindfulness-based training and turnover intentions.

While mindfulness helps employees cope with their stress, it does not directly relate to the employees’ turnover intentions, contrary to previous research [14, 62, 72, 73]. The complexity of turnover decisions, which may also be influenced by organizational, financial, and career-related factors—could explain why mindfulness does not directly affect turnover intentions. Given our circumstances, job security might outweigh other concerns due to Turkiye’s economic instability and high inflation [27]. The labor market may be constrained by high unemployment rates, making it more difficult for workers to quit even if they are unhappy. Therefore, employees may remain in their existing roles out of necessity rather than choice, regardless of their capacity to manage stress through mindfulness.

Although there is a tendency to regard mindfulness and its practices as crucial for addressing work-related outcomes [6], certain studies caution against the uncritical acceptance of mindfulness [9, 105], noting that mindfulness might unintentionally lead employees to prioritize personal values or relationships over organizational objectives. Thus, it can be reasonable to argue that mindfulness’s most significant effect lies in its ability to mitigate perceived stress, thereby indirectly influencing employee turnover intentions.

Theoretical and practical implications

The current study makes several notable theoretical and practical contributions by examining employee outcome variables in one integrated model. While previous studies have shown how mindfulness relates to turnover intentions [14, 73] and how it relates to well-being [2, 42], the current study expands our understanding of mindfulness by examining its effects on both employee well-being and turnover intentions in one cohesive model and highlighting perceived stress as a mediating mechanism within JD-R model. As Daniel et al. [106] highlighted the distinct and fragmented nature of mindfulness research in different schools of thought, levels, and disciplines, this paper adds to the industrial and organizational psychology literature in discussing the impact of mindfulness on a variety of employee outcomes at work life.

Employee turnover incurs significant costs related to the process of separation, replacement, and training [107], estimated to range from 1.5 to 2.5 times the annual salary of employees [108]. Mindfulness in the workplace has been recognized as an effective strategy for improving employee retention [109, 110]. Investing in mindfulness training due to its relationship with stress reduction and fostering a supportive environment for its practice can provide organizations with a strategic advantage. This study, therefore, contributes to the ongoing discussion on workplace well-being by highlighting the importance of mindfulness in reducing stress and turnover intentions, further underscoring its significance in organizational settings. From a practical standpoint, mindfulness training offers a cost-effective and scalable intervention for enhancing employee well-being, reducing turnover, and fostering a more engaged workforce.

Research indicates that mindfulness can be cultivated through mindfulness training programs. For instance, Brown and Ryan [2] have provided evidence that even trait-based scores on the MAAS could be improved over time during an eight-week standardized mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Thus, interventions that enhance attention and attitudes can help employees develop mindfulness skills, which could yield positive outcomes for individuals and organizations [2, 100, 111]. In this regard, organizations could design and offer mindfulness-based stress reduction training programs that combine mindfulness meditation, yoga, mindful breathing, and mindful stretching to their employees to manage stress and increase employee mental health [69].

Further, leaders could play a crucial role in fostering a culture of acceptance and openness among employees by endorsing mindfulness practices and demonstrating positive attitudes toward mindfulness practices. When leaders integrate mindfulness practices into their routines, they might become role models who inspire employees to engage in similar practices. Therefore, organizations should prioritize cultivating organizational leaders and engaging them in mindfulness training programs to maximize their impact on employee well-being and organizational outcomes.

Limitations and future directions

The current study is not without certain limitations despite its strengths. First, this study employed a cross-sectional design, which could limit inferences regarding causal relationships. Thus, prospective research could employ longitudinal designs to explore the causal dynamics between mindfulness, stress, and organizational outcomes. Second, we used self-report tools to assess the study variables of perceived stress, employee well-being, and turnover intention. Although these instruments are psychometrically valid and reliable, there might be a thread of social desirability bias. Future studies could combine multiple methods for a more comprehensive understanding. For example, some alternative tools, such as physical (e.g., cortisol levels for measuring stress), behavioral (e.g., absenteeism and job search behavior for measuring turnover intention; facial expression for measuring stress), and observational (e.g., direct observation or video analysis for measuring stress and turnover intention) measures, would provide complementary information to self-report measures. Third, we measured the mindfulness levels of participants using the Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS). Future studies could also employ other measures of mindfulness in addition to MAAS, particularly focusing on state-based mindfulness measures. Fourth, we address the organizational outcomes of employee well-being and turnover intention. Future research could explore the influence of mindfulness on other organizational outcomes, such as job engagement, job satisfaction, actual turnover, job performance, and/or organizational citizenship behavior. Fifth, when exploring the indirect effects of mindfulness on employee outcomes, we focused only on one transmitting mechanism, perceived stress. Several other partial mediations (i.e., optimism, burnout, etc., and leader mindfulness) and/or serial mediating mechanisms, in addition to perceived stress, could offer valuable directions for future studies [14]. Among the possible mediators, Byron et al. [112] highlighted the importance of leaders’ attitudes toward mindfulness interventions, emphasizing their impact on the acceptance and effectiveness of such training among employees. The last limitation is related to our non-Western sample. This study gathered data from Turkish employees, which could restrict the generalizability of our findings to our populations and thereby highlight the need for further research in more different samples.

Conclusion

This study contributes to the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of how mindfulness influences employee outcomes. Specifically, the findings suggest that mindfulness indirectly impacts employee well-being through its negative effect on perceived stress. By demonstrating the mediating role of perceived stress, the findings of this study encourage reflection on employees’ levels of mindfulness, which influences their stress, well-being, and overall work performance. As a result, from a practical point of view, organizations can consider mindfulness training and support a valuable strategy for promoting a healthier and more productive workforce in sustainable organizations.