Teachers’ perceptions of children with autism spectrum disorder: a comparison between special education and preschool teachers

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the metaphors preschool and special education teachers developed about autism. In this study, the researchers used the phenomenology design, one of the qualitative research designs. While determining the study group of the research, the convenience sampling method, one of the purposeful sampling methods, was used. The study group consisted of 90 teachers who volunteered to participate. The data were collected with the metaphor pattern prepared as “Autism is like …………. Because it is like …….” metaphor mold was used to collect the data. The data were analyzed using the content analysis technique. The metaphors teachers use provide important information about their attitudes toward ASD and their pedagogical strategies. The results of this study show that both groups of teachers have different approaches to the education and development of children with autism. Findings reveal significant differences in attitudes and educational strategies, showing that special education teachers often view ASD as a process of discovery, while preschool teachers express hope and some uncertainty.

Introduction

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a broad spectrum that includes individuals who experience challenges in social interaction, communication skills, and repetitive patterns of behavior [1]. The rising number of ASD diagnoses highlights the importance of teachers’ awareness of this issue and access to necessary resources [2]. The development of awareness and understanding of autism is crucial at the social level and in education systems [3]. It is essential for teachers, particularly those in preschool and special education, to possess a solid understanding and perception of this subject to communicate effectively with students with autism and contribute to their education [4].

Teachers in the field of special education must have an accurate understanding of the nature and requirements of ASD to effectively communicate with and support students [4, 5]. The way teachers understand ASD plays an important role in their interactions with students, and this is critical for students to feel accepted in educational environments and their educational success [5,6,7].

Professionals’ positive perceptions of ASD may lead them to have more positive expectations for these students and to implement more effective teaching strategies [8]. At the same time, increased understanding and acceptance of these students may encourage greater flexibility and adaptation in classroom practices. This supports students with ASD to participate more actively in the learning process and the development of their academic and social skills [9]. Teachers’ high expectations and effective strategies strengthen students’ self-belief and make them more willing to overcome academic difficulties [10].

Teachers’ lack of knowledge about Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) may lead to misinterpretation of key features and symptoms of ASD. For instance, a student with ASD may avoid eye contact or not engage in social interaction, which a teacher may mistakenly interpret as unwillingness or disinterest. Incorrect judgments can lead teachers to develop negative attitudes towards students and fail to provide them with the necessary support and understanding during the educational process [11]. In addition, such situations may negatively affect the student’s self-confidence, reduce their motivation to learn, and cause their academic success to be limited [12, 13].

The ability of teachers to identify ASD and implement effective intervention strategies directly affects the academic and social success of their students [14]. Special education teachers, in particular, play a crucial role in providing specific education and interventions for students with ASD [15]. Preschool teachers also have a significant role in early intervention since ASD symptoms typically manifest during the preschool years [16].

Numerous studies using quantitative methods in the education of students with ASD have focused specifically on teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of ASD [17,18,19]. In addition, how diagnostic labels affect teachers’ perceptions of the behaviors of students with ASD [20] and differences in teachers’ perceptions of the nature and management of children with ASD [21] have also been examined with quantitative methods. A limited number of studies have focused on teachers’ educational experiences with children with ASD [22] and the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the education of students with ASD [23]. Although teacher beliefs are determinant in the quality of educational services provided to students with ASD and in classroom interactions [24], teachers’ beliefs about ASD have not been examined in depth. In studies that mostly adopt quantitative approaches, teachers’ knowledge and attitudes have been evaluated within predetermined frameworks. Examining teachers’ views of ASD through metaphors can contribute to a comprehensive understanding of how teachers interpret and perceive ASD in the context of individual differences and unique characteristics.

Metaphors can be an effective tool in determining teachers’ beliefs, values and attitudes towards ASD. Metaphor is conceptualized as mechanisms that help to understand complex structures, experiences, abstract and difficult to understand ideas and concepts [25, 26]. Metaphors have some advantages [27, 28]. Firstly, it allows for revealing personal interpretations. Secondly, it brings different interpretations of the same phenomenon to the surface. Thirdly, metaphors evoke emotions and allow making sense of experiences in terms of affective and cognitive aspects. There is a growing interest in metaphor research to understand how teachers conceptualize their views about school life, students, and curriculum [29]. For example, in a recent study [30], the metaphorical perceptions of students receiving postgraduate education in the field of special education about children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder were examined, and it was determined that the participants had positive views; in addition, the participants were aware of the needs of children with autism. In the study conducted by [31], the view of parents of children with normal development and parents of children with special needs towards their children and special education was tried to be understood through metaphors. In this study, the authors argue that metaphors can be a useful tool in understanding the perceptions and understandings of special education and general education teachers about children with autism. Because teachers’ perceptions of students are closely related to their relationships with students, teaching motivation and teaching practices [32].

Understanding teachers’ perceptions is crucial for increasing the effectiveness of educational approaches for students with ASD. Teachers require accurate and up-to-date information about ASD to provide appropriate interventions and support to these students [33]. Teachers’ positive or negative attitudes towards ASD are likely to be related to their knowledge and experience [34]. Teachers‘knowledge and experience were important variables in predicting teachers’ attitudes toward teaching students with ASD [35]. In a study conducted in Türkiye [36], the perceptions of general education and special education teachers towards students with ASD were compared using quantitative methods and it was determined that special education teachers had more positive perceptions. With the increase in inclusion practices, more students with ASD started to receive education in general education classes. Therefore, this situation necessitates that general education teachers as well as special education teachers should have positive attitudes, adequate knowledge and skills about the education of students with ASD. When teachers are informed about the diagnosis of children with ASD, they tend to evaluate the behaviours of these students less negatively [20]. In this context, comparing the views of teachers in special education and general education classes on ASD may contribute to developing strategies to support both special and general education teachers.

In recent years, special attention has been paid to mainstreaming practices in Türkiye. However, many studies have reported that general education teachers have negative attitudes towards students with ASD [37, 38]. However, teachers’ perspectives and attitudes towards students play an important role in the success of inclusion practices for students with ASD [39]. It is important to start education for children with ASD from early childhood. If adequate learning opportunities are not provided for individuals with special needs in the early years, delays and deviations in development may increase [40]. In addition, special education services provided in preschool education increase the likelihood of children benefiting from general education environments and reduce the emotional and social problems experienced by families [41]. In addition, the education received in this period is the basis for other levels of education and also serves as a source for guiding students with ASD [18, 42, 43]. In this context, focusing on the views of special education and general education teachers who have a critical role in the education of children with ASD in the preschool period may contribute to developing policies that can promote the quality of education in this period.

Special education teachers are typically involved in a long-term and structured educational process with students diagnosed with ASD, whereas preschool teachers engage with children with ASD at an early age and for a shorter period. This difference may influence how teachers conceptualize ASD and shape their metaphors. Special education teachers tend to perceive ASD as a process of discovery, while preschool teachers may approach it from the perspective of hope or uncertainty. This study aims to analyze the metaphors related to ASD developed by these two groups of teachers and reveal the differences in their perceptions.

Finally, this research suggests that improving teachers’ understanding and knowledge of ASD can help them address the challenges that students with ASD face in education, allowing these students to reach their full academic and social potential. Therefore, this study is an important step towards improving educational approaches for students with ASD.

Turkish context

Special education services for students with ASD in Türkiye are carried out by the General Directorate of Special Education and Guidance Services under the Ministry of National Education (MoNE). There are different types of schools for special education services for individuals with ASD. Special education classes are classes designed to meet the special educational needs of students diagnosed with ASD, usually located within general education schools. These classes offer students more individualized learning opportunities. Special education schools, on the other hand, are institutions that serve only students with special educational needs and offer programs to improve the academic and social skills of students diagnosed with ASD. These schools are institutions where special education methodologies are applied and equipped with special educational materials. Finally, there are students diagnosed with ASD who are included in inclusive practices. These schools are institutions where students diagnosed with ASD are integrated into general education classes, but where special support and interventions are provided when necessary. This type of educational environment allows students diagnosed with ASD to develop their social skills and interact with their peers [44]. The last type of school is private special education schools, where students receiving state funding can receive education free of charge. However, during the 12-year compulsory education period in Türkiye, students attending private special education schools can also benefit from public schools [45]. These schools are complementary to public schools as supporting educational institutions.

The Turkish education system has made strides toward inclusive practices, particularly following legislative support from the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) for inclusive education and special education services. However, societal views on disability, which sometimes emphasize limitations rather than strengths, can shape how teachers interpret the unique needs and potential of students with autism. Understanding these cultural nuances is essential when examining Turkish teachers’ metaphors and perceptions of autism, as they reflect both personal experiences and broader societal beliefs. This cultural perspective underlines the need for teacher education programs in Turkey to not only enhance knowledge and skills related to autism but also to address societal attitudes, helping teachers foster inclusive, supportive environments that value each child’s unique contributions.

Purpose of the study

ASD is becoming increasingly important in education, how teachers perceive ASD and how these perceptions are categorized have not been investigated. In particular, preschool and special education teachers work with children with ASD in different contexts and approach their education from distinct perspectives. This difference may lead to significant variations in how teachers conceptualize autism. The primary aim of this study is to identify the metaphors that preschool and special education teachers develop regarding ASD and to explore the underlying perceptions reflected in these metaphors. In line with this general aim, the following research questions were addressed:

• What are the metaphors developed by preschool teachers towards ASD and under which categories are they collected?

• What are the metaphors developed by special education teachers towards ASD and under which categories are they collected?

• Are there similarities and differences in terms of the metaphors developed by preschool and special education teachers towards ASD and the categories in which they are collected.

Method

Research design

This study utilized descriptive phenomenology design, a qualitative research approach, to deeply examine and describe the experiences, perceptions, and opinions of individuals regarding the phenomenon under investigation. The use of phenomenology in educational sciences research is well-established [46,47,48]. Specifically, the researchers sought to understand the opinions of preschool and special education teachers on autism. The descriptive phenomenology pattern was utilized to reveal the participants’ experiences, perceptions, and the meanings they attributed to these personal experiences by describing them in depth.

Sample

The research sample consisted of 90 teachers from seven preschools and five special education schools in Sakarya Province in the first semester of the 2021–2022 academic year who volunteered to participate in the study. Convenience sampling, one of the purposeful sampling methods, was used to determine the sample of the research. Convenience sampling was utilized to gather in-depth information from the study group regarding the subject under investigation [49]. In this study, researchers employed convenience samplings to obtain more comprehensive data from teachers about their experiences and perceptions of autism. Following the initial researcher’s explanation of the research topic and metaphor to the teachers in the schools, 104 teachers volunteered to participate in the research. Prior to commencing data analysis, the researchers reviewed all data collection forms completed by the teachers. Each form was scrutinized to ensure it was completed in accordance with the research objectives, all information fields were completed, and that metaphors were meaningful, and reasons were provided. As a result of this review, 14 data forms with deficiencies were excluded as they were unsuitable for the research. Table 1 presents the personal information of the sample.

Table 1 Personal information of the sample

When Table 1 is examined, it is seen that the majority of the sample is women and their experience is between 1 and 5 years. However, it can also be found that the majority of both preschool and special education teachers have students with autism.

Data collection

The data of the research were collected with a data collection form consisting of two parts, including an information form containing the personal information of the teachers, a sample metaphor, and an open-ended question prepared using a metaphor pattern. In the first part of the data collection form, the personal information of the teachers was included: gender, experience, field of graduation, and having a student with autism. In the second part, the metaphor pattern used to determine metaphorical perceptions was adapted for “Autism” and it was prepared as “Autism is like …………. Because ……”. This metaphor pattern, which is used to determine teachers’ perceptions about “Autism”, enables an analogy to be made and to explain why this analogy is used [50]. Metaphors have some advantages over structured, semi-structured or unstructured interview form data collection methods. Metaphors are an effective method in revealing the beliefs, values and attitudes of the participants that require more in-depth analysis. In addition, participants can express their opinions and thoughts more concretely through metaphors [28, 51].

At the schools where the sampled teachers were present, the first researcher presented explanations and sample metaphor sentences in suitable locations, such as the teachers’ room or an empty classroom. Only teachers who completed and signed the voluntary participation consent form were included in the study. Data collection forms were distributed to the teachers, who were then asked to create a single metaphor and provide a reason. The forms were filled out by the teachers within a range of 12 to 17 min, with no time limit specified by the researcher.

Data analysis

The data collected from the teachers underwent content analysis. This involved conceptualization and categorization based on the metaphors and analogies used in the data. Direct quotes from participant expressions were then interpreted and placed under the relevant categories, following the content analysis technique outlined by [49, 50]. In this analysis process, the researchers tried to explain the data obtained from the teachers with important statements based on the researchers’ own experiences and then tried to reach the big framework [46] by combining these statements under certain themes. The analysis process is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Data analysis process

Within the scope of the research, the data collected from teachers was analyzed using content analysis stages and some studies in the literature [52,53,54]. The analysis stages proceeded as follows.

• The data obtained were examined and sorted by the researchers in line with criteria such as what was left blank, why it was not written, or the absence of meaningful metaphors. As a result of this process, 90 data collection forms were grouped into 45 special education teachers and 45 preschool teachers to be analyzed and numbered separately from 1 to 45.

• For each group, the researchers read all the data with a holistic approach. All metaphors are listed in Microsoft Excel. A total of 74 codes emerged: 38 codes for special education teachers and 36 codes for preschool teachers.

• Metaphors were evaluated together with their common features and reasons for analogy. To understand whether the teachers who use the same metaphor have the same perspective or the same perception, the researchers conceptualized the reasons on which all metaphors are based and their logical relationships. A total of 9 categories were reached, 5 of which were “Discovery, Distinctness, Patience, Loop, and Mystery” for special education teachers, and 4 of which were “Distinctness, Hopefulness, Despair, and Obscurity” for preschool teachers.

• The metaphors, categories, and reasons for analogy obtained within the scope of the research were interpreted and presented within the preschool and special education teacher groups by directly quoting them, and then the codes and categories of both teacher groups were compared and interpreted. In comparing the metaphors used by teacher groups, word clouds were used, which enabled them to be visualized more clearly and larger depending on the frequency of use. Word clouds were prepared through the program using [55]. Analysis and interpretations of the data are presented in the findings section with tables and figures.

Validity and reliability

In this research, teacher participation is voluntary. Teachers included in the study fill out voluntary participation forms. Researchers inform the teachers about the purpose of the research and the metaphor before the research. Researchers spend time with the teachers before the data collection process. There is no time limit during the data collection process. The credibility of the research was ensured by meeting the teachers in the researcher’s presence and without any guidance so that the teachers in the sample would not be influenced by each other. On the other hand, the researchers provided a detailed explanation of the entire process, from data collection to reporting. They described the process of creating codes and categories in the method section and ensured transferability by supporting it with direct quotations in the findings section. The participants’ personal information was reported collectively in accordance with the research purposes and ethical guidelines. The information was presented in direct quotations, with participant identities hidden and coded as ‘SET9’ for special education teachers or ‘PT17’ for preschool teachers. To ensure the reliability of the research, the researchers independently read the data and created codes and categories. They then held three online meetings to resolve any incompatible codes and categories until a consensus was reached and common codes and categories were established.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of İnönü University (Approval No: 06/16). Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in this study. Initially, informed consent was taken from the teachers, who briefly described the study’s significance. The researchers assured the participants that the information received would remain confidential and that participants’ identities would never be disclosed. Participants were also informed that if they felt discomfort or unease at any research stage, they had the right to withdraw from the study. Participants were assured that their information would remain anonymous and that their participation was voluntary. This commitment to ethical standards guaranteed participant confidentiality and the integrity of our research.

Findings

In this section, the metaphors created by teachers, the reasons for their use, and the similarities and differences between the metaphors developed by preschool teachers and special education teachers are presented using figures and tables. First of all, the metaphors developed by preschool and special education teachers, their categories, and reasons for use are presented separately, and then the perceptions of preschool and special education teachers towards autism are presented comparatively. As a result of the analysis of the data obtained from the teachers participating in the research, 36 metaphors from preschool teachers and 38 metaphors from special education teachers were reached. Metaphors of preschool teachers were grouped into four categories, and metaphors of special education teachers were grouped into five categories. In the first step of the research, 36 metaphors produced by preschool teachers were grouped according to the classification based on their common features and reasons for use. As a result of grouping, metaphors were grouped into four different categories, and these categories are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Categories of the preschool teachers’ metaphors

The metaphors developed by preschool teachers were grouped into four categories: hopefulness (n = 17), distinctness (n = 9), despair (n = 6), and obscurity (n = 4). A total of 36 different metaphors emerged, and when the categories were examined, the most metaphors were in the hopefulness category and the least in the obscurity category. In the Hopefulness category, there are the metaphors of stairs (n = 2), flower (n = 2), precious stones, the sun shining while snowing, light, soil, air, heart, nature, compassion and patience, wheel, seashell, sugar, sprout, tree, a blank book, raw material, season of winter. In the distinctness category, there are metaphors of privilege, talent, puzzle piece, snowflake (n = 2), rainbow (n = 4), sun, treasure, orchid, precious stones. In the despair category, there are metaphors of a deep well, a knotted rope (n = 2), bird with a broken wing, rose with thorns, rushing waters, a fish swimming against the current. In the obscurity category, there are metaphors of gift box, a sealed envelope, space and feeling stones. Metaphors developed by preschool teachers towards the concept of autism and examples of opinions regarding metaphors are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Categories of the metaphors created by preschool teachers regarding the concept of “autism” and the reasons for using them

Upon examining Table 2, it becomes apparent that preschool teachers tend to utilize concrete concepts and both positive and negative expressions in their metaphors. When evaluating the metaphors and their respective reasons for use, it can be concluded that preschool teachers associate various characteristics of children with their development and education. Preschool teachers tend to focus on the unknown aspects of autism, which can lead to feelings of helplessness. The research’s second question involved grouping 38 metaphors created by special education teachers based on their common features and reasons for use. This resulted in the identification of five different categories, as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Categories of the special education teachers’ metaphors

The metaphors developed by special education teachers were grouped into five categories: discovery (n = 11), mystery (n = 8), patience (n = 7), distinctness (n = 7), and loop (n = 5). A total of 38 different metaphors emerged, and when the categories were examined, the most metaphors were in the discovery category and the least in the loop category. In the discovery category, there are the metaphors of matryoshka, basil, computer, diamond, rainbow, deserted island, charade, lightning, butterfly, arrow, and metaverse. In the mystery category, there are the metaphors of jewelery, flower, dream, an alien color, gift, foggy road, secret, and adventure. In the patience category, there are metaphors of exam, snowy mountain, seed, baby, endemic plant, sea, and wall. In the distinctness category, there are metaphors of perspective, fingerprint, snowflake, rainbow, a hidden box, dandelion, and chain. In the Loop category, there are the metaphors of clock, swing, weighing instrument, season, and pattern. Metaphors developed by special education teachers towards the concept of autism and examples of opinions regarding metaphors are listed in Table 3.

Table 3 Categories of the metaphors created by special education teachers regarding the concept of “autism” and the reasons for using them

When Table 3 is examined, the metaphors created by special education teachers regarding autism and the reasons for the use of these metaphors are categorized. The “Discovery” category emphasizes that autism is a rich and not yet fully understood area waiting to be discovered, with metaphors such as metaverse, charade, and deserted island. The “Distinctness” category shows that each individual is unique and valuable, with metaphors of fingerprint, snowflake, rainbow, and dandelion, and that autism expresses individual differences and uniqueness. The “Mystery” category explains that autism is a journey that includes unknowns and surprises through the metaphors of gift, dream, an alien color, and adventure. The “Patience” category, with its metaphors of exam, seed, sea, and wall, indicates that dealing with autism requires patience, understanding, and time. The “Loop” category, with metaphors of swing, clock, and pattern, reveals that autism involves repetitive behaviors and routines and that these cyclical structures are of critical importance for understanding the worlds of individuals. These metaphors provide a rich and diverse language for better understanding and teaching autism, offering students the opportunity to comprehensively express their needs and worlds. When Table 3 is examined, word clouds of the metaphors are presented in Figs. 4 and 5.

Fig. 4

Word cloud of the special education teachers’ metaphors

Upon examining Fig. 4, it becomes apparent that special education teachers frequently use the metaphors ‘rainbow,’ ‘snowflake,’ ‘weighing instrument,’ and ‘seed’ to describe ‘autism.’ The word cloud visually represents the multifaceted and rich metaphors that these teachers use to express the educational processes and experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Prominent metaphors such as ‘Rainbow’ and ‘Snowflake’ are often used to emphasize the uniqueness and specificity of individuals. However, ‘Fingerprint’ and ‘Arrow’ are more appropriate symbols for the different needs and potential of each individual. ‘Metaverse’ and ‘Deserted Island’ suggest unexplored areas and depths regarding the autism spectrum, while ‘Charade’ and ‘Dream’ draw attention to forms of communication and inner worlds that carry meaning beyond what is observed. The use of metaphors such as ‘Wall’ and ‘Sea’ in the education process reflects the challenges and rewards encountered with patience and understanding. These metaphors highlight the complex perspectives of teachers on the education of individuals with autism and emphasize that the educational process involves not only academic achievement but also personal and emotional development. This word cloud illustrates that special education teachers develop cognitive frameworks that necessitate diversity and depth to enhance their comprehension and support of their students’ experiences. Upon analyzing the reasons behind the most commonly used metaphors by special education teachers, it can be concluded that autism is primarily interpreted through its distinctions.

Fig. 5

Word cloud of the preschool teachers’ metaphors

Upon examining Fig. 5, it can be concluded that preschool teachers most frequently use the metaphors ‘rainbow,’ ‘snowflake,’ ‘gift box,’ and ‘stairs’ to describe ‘autism.’ The word cloud also includes expressions such as ‘a knotted rope’ and ‘puzzle piece,’ which illustrate the complex nature of living with autism and the challenges of working with individuals on the spectrum. This emphasizes the need for educators to be patient. The terms ‘Light’ and ‘Heart’ express hope for individuals with autism when approached with love and understanding. ‘Precious stones’ and ‘Treasure’ symbolize the unique values and abilities that individuals with autism possess. The word cloud indicates that educators view children with autism as valuable individuals who can develop through education and social acceptance. Each metaphor illustrates the need for a comprehensive and empathetic perspective to comprehend the role of individuals with autism in their lives and society.

When all categories and metaphors were examined in general, it was concluded that both special education and preschool teachers intersected in the distinctness category, and the rainbow and snowflake metaphors were also common. It is seen that the reasons for using rainbow and snowflake metaphors are similar for both teacher groups. Teachers in both groups explained their reasons for using these metaphors as not only autism has different characteristics, but also students with autism have different and unique characteristics from each other. At the same time, preschool teachers not only produced metaphors that expressed emotions related to the unknown, such as a deep well, knotted rope, sealed envelope, and space, but also used positive metaphors that represented hope, development, and positivity, such as stairs, seashell, and the sun shining while snowing. On the other hand, special education teachers also used metaphors such as fingerprint, swing, clock, pattern, season, secret, and foggy road, reflecting their professional knowledge and experience with the characteristics of autism.

Discussion, conclusion, and recommendations

This study delves into the perceptions of preschool and special education teachers regarding Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and how these perceptions influence their educational approaches. The metaphors used by teachers provide valuable insight into their attitudes towards ASD and their pedagogical strategies. Specifically, the differences in the metaphors developed by both groups of teachers allow us to comprehend how their perceptions of ASD are formed. Preschool teachers appear to focus more on metaphors in the hope category, suggesting a positive approach towards ASD. In contrast, special education teachers seem to focus more on metaphors in the discovery category, which may indicate that understanding ASD and communicating effectively with students is a process. Both groups of teachers consider metaphors in the distinctness category important, which may reflect their acceptance of ASD as a difference. However, preschool teachers also focus on metaphors in the helplessness category, indicating that they may view ASD as a challenging and unresolvable situation at some moments.

The comparison of metaphors used by preschool and special education teachers provides insight into their perceptions of autism spectrum disorder. Both groups utilize concrete concepts and incorporate positive and negative expressions, highlighting the multifaceted nature of ASD. Preschool teachers can observe the significant potential of children with ASD in developing their unique characteristics through education. However, they also express a sense of helplessness when faced with the unknown aspects of ASD. Special education teachers, on the other hand, stress the importance of discovering and being patient with the different aspects of children with ASD [52]. conducted a study on the perceptions of special education teacher candidates towards individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. The research results indicate that teachers use various metaphors to describe these individuals, such as ‘Mysterious and Waiting to be Discovered’, ‘Requiring Effort’, ‘Different’, ‘Special’, ‘Requiring Empathy’, and ‘Prejudiced’. These results indicate that special education teachers and teacher candidates share similar perceptions. However [52], study did not find the metaphor of ‘patience’ in special education teacher candidates, indicating that individual experiences, such as perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and past experiences, are important factors in creating different metaphors [56,57,58].

These findings suggest that both groups of teachers have different approaches to the education and development of children with autism. It is crucial to consider these differences to better respond to the needs of teacher education programs and professional development activities. It is important for preschool teachers to emphasize the less understood aspects of ASD. Given the increasing involvement of individuals with ASD in inclusion practices, it is essential that teachers are adequately prepared to effectively educate these students [59].

In this research, it was found that preschool teachers created 36 metaphors, while special education teachers created 38 metaphors. These results suggest that both groups utilize a range of conceptual tools to comprehend and manage ASD. The visual structure of the metaphors created by the teachers enables us to see these different approaches more clearly. These findings deepen our understanding of how special education and preschool teachers perceive ASD. Specifically, upon examining the most frequently used metaphors by both groups of teachers and the reasons behind their use, it becomes clear that they interpret ASD as a condition of difference and uniqueness. Special education teachers often view ASD as a reflection of the unique characteristics and differences of their students. For this reason, individuals with autism are often described using metaphors such as ‘rainbow’, ‘snowflake’, ‘weighing instrument’, and ‘seed’. These metaphors highlight the unique and diverse characteristics of people with autism. Both teacher groups also commonly use the metaphors ‘rainbow’ and ‘snowflake’ to emphasize difference and uniqueness. Individuals with autism are often described as having unique and distinct characteristics from one another, as supported by previous research. For instance [60], emphasized the individual differences among individuals with ASD in their study [61]. it was stated that children with ASD can develop unique approaches in areas such as social communication and symbolic play. Educators should consider ways to support authenticity. The results indicate that teachers should emphasize the importance of recognizing and encouraging students’ unique characteristics [62]. discusses the differences in the ‘theory of mind’ abilities of individuals with ASD and explains how these differences affect their social interactions. This study supports the concepts of ‘difference’ and ‘unique characteristics’ expressed by special education teachers.

Preschool teachers use metaphors that may represent obscurity and uncertainty, while special education teachers use metaphors that reflect their professional knowledge and experience. This indicates differences in how both groups perceive and interpret ASD. These findings suggest the need for differentiated teacher education programs and professional development activities to provide teachers with the skills to better understand and manage ASD. A series of studies have examined teacher perceptions of ASD, providing important clues about how these perceptions should be addressed in teacher education and professional development programs. Teacher training programs should emphasize the necessary skills and strategies for teachers to communicate effectively with students with ASD. It is also important to provide teachers with the support and resources they need to better serve students with ASD. According to [5], providing support and resources can lead to teachers perceiving their relationships with students with ASD more positively, resulting in lower levels of behavioral problems and increased social involvement in the classroom. The research conducted by [63] indicates that interventions made during teacher training and professional development processes can significantly improve teachers’ attitudes towards students with special needs.

Previous studies show how teachers conceptualize ASD directly impacts educational processes [64]. Specifically, while preschool teachers tend to use metaphors related to uncertainty and helplessness, special education teachers perceive ASD as a process requiring discovery and patience. Considering these differences, professional development programs for teachers should be restructured. Preschool teachers should receive training that enhances their awareness of ASD and strengthens early intervention approaches. Meanwhile, special education teachers should be provided with practical training modules that help them develop pedagogical strategies for working with ASD students in long-term educational settings.

Teachers' attitudes towards students directly affect students’ experiences in the classroom [65]. If teachers interpret ASD positively and flexibly, it can enhance ASD students’ academic achievement and social interactions. Therefore, educational materials should be developed to help teachers better understand their students. Teachers should employ individualized instructional techniques for ASD students and adopt a more flexible and adaptive approach toward the unknown aspects of ASD.

This study highlights the need for teachers’ perceptions of ASD to shape educational policies. The Ministry of National Education and relevant educational institutions should offer more structured training programs to increase ASD awareness in teacher preparation programs. Additionally, initiatives should be developed to enhance collaboration between special education and preschool teachers, with a particular focus on inclusive education models. To better support ASD students in education, teachers’ professional development processes should be continuously monitored and updated.

Limitations

The limitations of this study are due to several factors related to the scope and methods of the research. Firstly, the study group was limited to 90 volunteer teachers from seven preschools and five special education schools in Sakarya province of Türkiye, which limits the generalizability of the findings. Therefore, the study’s results may not be directly applicable to teachers in different geographical regions or educational institutions. Furthermore, while analyzing teachers’ views on ASD through metaphors may provide a thorough comprehension, it may not directly assess how these views are manifested in educational practices. Therefore, it is advisable to investigate the correlation between teachers’ perceptions of ASD and educational approaches more comprehensively by employing larger and more diverse study groups in future research.