Investigation of the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behavior of students playing traditional children’s games

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors of students who participate in traditional children's games. The research was designed using a quasi-experimental model with a pre-test and post-test control group and was conducted over a period of 16 weeks. The study group consisted of a total of 1871 students, including 1379 middle school and 492 high school students, continuing their education in Eskil, Aksaray during the 2023–2024 academic year. The experimental group students participated in the games and inter-school tournaments within the scope of the “2nd I Live My Values with Traditional Games Project” No intervention was applied to the control group after the introduction of the games. The “School Belongingness Scale” and the “Physical Education Course Sportspersonship Behavior Scale” were used as data collection tools. For data analysis, MANOVA, paired samples t-test, and regression analysis were employed. The findings of the study indicated that both the experimental and control groups showed positive scores in pre-test and post-test measures of school belongingness and sportspersonship behaviors. However, the experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in their sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors in favor of the post-test. While no significant change was observed in the control group's sense of school belonging, a decline was noted in their sportspersonship behaviors. The experimental group exhibited greater development in school belongingness and sportspersonship behaviors compared to the control group. Although middle school students showed improvements in their sense of school belonging, high school students experienced a more substantial emotional development. No significant differences were found in school belongingness and sportspersonship behaviors based on the students' gender. Sportspersonship behavior predicted school belongingness by 11%, suggesting that positive sportspersonship behaviors increased school attachment among children. In conclusion, it was determined that students participating in traditional children's games developed a more positive sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors over time. Based on the positive outcomes of student participation in traditional games, it is recommended to promote these games, incorporate them into physical education classes, and increase participation in tournaments.

Introductıon

Traditional children's games (TCGs), as a reflection of a society's cultural heritage and shared values, contribute significantly to the social, emotional, and physical development of individuals [35]. TCGs have played an important role in the socialization process of children throughout history, being passed down from generation to generation in various cultures [26]. TCGs help children develop decision-making skills [72], foster self-regulation by adhering to rules [20], and promote learning through games [34]. Beyond merely being a form of entertainment, traditional games provide an interactive environment that fosters strong bonds between individuals, teaches social norms, and reinforces a sense of belonging within a community [55]. Within this environment, children who feel secure are more likely to engage in physical activities [65]. Teachers who recognize the benefits of TCGs for children provide opportunities for play during lessons and break time in school settings [61, 62].

The use of traditional children's games (TCGs) as an educational tool in physical education classes does not only contribute to the development of children's physical skills [7]. TCGs also teach children important sportspersonship values such as fair play, respect, empathy, and tolerance [31]. The concept of sportspersonship is a consistent pattern of behavior associated with social and moral values during sports activities, including respect, honesty, generosity, and politeness. Even in competitive sports environments, adhering to these rules and avoiding inappropriate behavior is essential to the spirit of sportspersonship [54, 22]. The sportspersonship behaviors that should or should not be exhibited in sports environments are related to certain normative standards [53]. The International Fair Play Committee has outlined 8 principles to promote sportspersonship. These principles include following the rules, staying loyal to teammates, keeping oneself in good shape, controlling one's anger, avoiding violence in the game, not boasting when winning, not being devastated when losing, and maintaining a healthy body with a sound mind and open-mindedness [32]. The defined principles of sportspersonship allow children to exhibit ethical and respectful behavior not only in sports activities but also in various situations they encounter in daily life [59]. The competition, cooperation, and team spirit inherent in TCGs play a critical role in the development of sportspersonship behaviors. For example, Damayani et al., [17] stated that TCGs provide an environment where competition and teamwork are balanced among students, contributing to the development of sportspersonship behaviors. In this context, TCGs encourage sportspersonship while emphasizing the need to avoid negative behaviors [18]. The experiences of winning and losing during games allow children to develop empathy and respect for others [37].

Children who have the opportunity to play TCGs not only develop behavior appropriate to the spirit of sports but also begin to establish a connection with their environment. A child who forms a bond with their environment starts to feel a sense of belonging. The sense of belonging is the feeling of being a member of a school or class and receiving support and acceptance [64]. A strong emotional attachment to school, which plays an active role in children's development as individuals, is explained as a sense of school belonging [38]. This attachment affects students' interest in school, academic success, and social adaptation. Students with a high sense of school belonging exhibit more positive behaviors because they like school, participate in school activities, and follow school rules [25]. It is anticipated that a strong sense of school belonging will be formed in a school where sportspersonship behaviors are displayed. In this regard, Lemyre et al., [33] found in their research that sportspersonship strengthens group dynamics and helps students internalize the feeling of being part of a community. Sportspersonship has allowed students to compete in a fair and respectful environment within the school, which has increased their attachment to school. Students who participate in TCGs performed as group games, develop a sense of group belonging by exhibiting sportspersonship behaviors and will adopt a positive attitude towards school [52]. There is a strong belief that sportspersonship, included in educational programs, positively affects school belonging through sports activities [68]. Beyond developing a sense of school belonging, incorporating sportspersonship into educational programs also facilitates students taking responsibility for the school [24]. In this context, sportspersonship education implemented alongside TCGs will strengthen students' sense of school belonging by increasing their interactions with each other. The friendships formed during games, working towards common goals, and spending time together help students form stronger bonds with the school community [70].

In the literature, it is seen that the most preferred game by educators is dodgeball game, and this game supports psychomotor development. While educators allocate more space for games that support psychomotor development, they have allocated very little space for games that support social-emotional development [30]. Temel and Kangalgil [60] reported that TCGs are effective in achieving course objectives, but they did not discuss the extent to which teachers use TCGs and which games they utilize. Researchers such as Istirahayu [27], Romanvican et al., [44], and Syihabbudin and Umami [56] have conducted research in Indonesia, focusing on a single traditional game and studying the educational outcomes of TCGs on a small sample. It is a reality that the importance of TCGs is not given enough space in the literature and that various negative situations are experienced. In today's sports organizations, acts of violence are frequently observed, and students adopt the principle of “winning at all costs” [36]. In this regard, students may exhibit aggressive behaviors towards their teammates, coaches, referees, and opposing players during games [22]. Moreover, as professionalism increases, athletes' elite-level participation in sports has led to the perception that unsportsmanlike behaviors are legitimate [50]. The media's emphasis on sports achievements has played a triggering role in people's desire to achieve success. To reach success quickly, there has been an increase in unsportsmanlike behaviors such as cheating, deception, match-fixing, bribery, and doping in sports fields [28]. Shields et al., [49] identified that factors such as age, gender, sports field, and achievement motivation are associated with the formation of sportsmanship and argued that these variables should be considered during education.

A strong fan loyalty towards a group can act as a driving force behind athletes' unsportspersonlike behaviors [45]. Excessive attachment may lead an individual or group members to engage in undesirable behaviors. Therefore, a serious support education should be organized within the school. When a school does not provide extracurricular activities that support students' talents and skills, students' sense of school belonging is negatively affected, and they may exhibit school dropout behavior [21]. Students who do not have a qualified academic goal and do not want to develop themselves according to their abilities may drop out of education and face many challenges [58]. The failure to provide opportunities for students to develop according to their abilities results in school dropouts. To prevent school dropout, efforts should be made to organize extracurricular activities in line with students' interests.

In this regard, the “2nd I Live My Values with Traditional Games Project” is being conducted in coordination with the T.R. Eskil District Governorship and the Eskil District Directorate of National Education in Aksaray/Eskil. This study is important in terms of evaluating the impact of TCGs activities organized in the school environment on students. The results of the research are significant in terms of testing whether a strong sense of school belonging can be fostered along with promoting the principles of sportspersonship in a sports environment. The study aims to determine the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors of students who play TCGs as a result of the project carried out. Eskil district is a region with a high rate of school dropout, especially at the high school level [64]. After evaluating the impact of sportspersonship behaviors on school belonging in sports fields, this study serves as a starting point to guide future efforts to prevent school dropout.

Method

Research model

This study was designed with a quasi-experimental model with a pretest–posttest control group. Traditional children's games (TCGs) tournaments are organized in formal educational institutions based on voluntary participation to develop students' cultural belonging and special talents. These tournaments are held in the spring semester in Aksaray Eskil. Since we cannot randomly assign students who participate in TCGs and those who do not participate, a quasi-experimental research design with a control group was preferred. Therefore, the intervention approach was applied on selected groups.

Participants

The study group consisted of a total of 1871 students, including 1379 middle school and 492 high school students who continue their education in Eskil, Aksaray. The students included in the study were selected using purposive sampling methods, specifically criterion sampling and maximum variation technique. Participation in the “2nd I Live My Values with Traditional Games Project” was taken as a criterion, while the broad sampling aimed to reveal various situations that are similar within themselves [10]. In experimental studies, the presence of 30 participants with matched data is generally accepted, while in survey studies, 384 participants are known to provide reliable results [10]. Based on this information, the 1871 participants with matched data sets in the study were considered quite sufficient (Table 1).

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of students

Data collection and ethical procedure

The first phase of the study was completed when the T.R. Eskil District Governorate announced the implementation of the "2nd I Live My Values with Traditional Games Project" on 18.12.2023. Subsequently, necessary applications for ethical procedures and research permissions were made. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Niğde Ömer Halisdemir University (decision dated 31.01.2024, numbered 2024/01–52), and permission for research application was granted by the Aksaray Governorate (decision dated 12.02.2024, numbered E-76490249–605.01–96493871).

Pre-test measurements were collected using the distribute-and-collect method starting on 12.02.2024. The introduction and implementation of the project in schools lasted for 10 weeks, followed by a 6-week period for organizing the competitions, during which students played the games. After the 16-week period, post-test measurements were collected using the distribute-and-collect method, completing the data collection phase. To collect paired data, student lists were obtained from the school administration, and a number was assigned to each survey. Researchers tracked the identity of the students corresponding to these numbers while adhering to confidentiality principles.

The research teachers took an active role in creating the playgrounds for the games in the project and teaching the games. In total, 20 schools in Eskil, including 15 middle schools and 5 high schools, were involved in the introduction, instruction, and creation of play areas. These activities were carried out in 5 schools per week, ensuring that all schools were informed about the project within 4 weeks. After the play areas were established, the games featured in the project—seven stones, handkerchief grabber, and castled dodgeball-were played until the end of the semester. Special attention was given to playing these games during physical education lessons and break time.

On 26.04.2024, the T.R. District Governorate of Eskil sent the match schedule to schools to organize the traditional games as tournaments at the school level. For middle schools, handkerchief grabber and castled dodgeball were chosen, while castled dodgeball and seven stones were selected for high schools (Fig. 1). The organization of the selected games lasted for 6 weeks, with a strong emphasis on broad participation. Therefore, the tournaments were held in three different regions: Eşmekaya, Çukuryurt, and Center. The schools were matched in the tournaments based on regional proximity. Participation in this project was voluntary, so not all students actively participated in the project. However, the number of students in this group was relatively small compared to those who participated in the activities. No intervention approach was applied to the group that did not participate after the initial presentation phase. This group also served as a control group in testing the intervention applied.

Fig. 1

Castled dodgeball, handkerchief grab, and seven stones games

Data collection tools

School sense of belonging scale

The “School Sense of Belonging Scale” was originally developed by Goodenow [24] and later adapted into Turkish by Sarı [47]. This scale is a 5-point Likert type and comprises two dimensions: School attachment and feeling of rejection. It includes a total of 18 items, with 13 positive statements and 5 negative statements (items 3, 6, 9, 12, and 16). The negative statements are reverse-coded for interpretation. Scores on the scale range from 18 to 90 in total and from 1 to 5 when using averages. The Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficients are 0.78 for the feeling of rejection, 0.84 for school attachment, and 0.84 for the overall scale. Higher scores on the scale indicate a positive sense of school belonging.

Sportspersonship behavior scale in physical education course

The “Sportspersonship Behavior Scale in Physical Education Course” was developed by Koç [32] as a 5-point Likert-type scale. It consists of a total of 22 items, with 11 positive statements and 11 negative statements. The negative statements are reverse-coded for interpretation. The scale has two dimensions: Displaying positive behaviors and avoiding negative behaviors. Scores on the scale range from 22 to 110 in total and from 1 to 5 when using averages. The Cronbach's alpha internal consistency coefficients are 0.86 for displaying positive behaviors, 0.84 for avoiding negative behaviors, and 0.88 for the overall scale. Higher scores on the scale indicate a good level of sportspersonship behavior.

Data evaluation

The homogeneity of the pre-test group scores is definitely checked when creating the experimental and control groups [10, 11]. The assumption of homogeneity was checked with the MANOVA test, and it was seen that there was no significant difference between the groups that participated and did not participate in TCGs in terms of the sense of school belonging (p > 0.31), and sportspersonship behavior (p > 0.44). With these results, the study was continued assuming that the experimental and control groups were equal. The research included students who voluntarily participated in the tournaments as part of the study group. The control group consisted of students who did not participate in the tournaments.

The data were analyzed using the SPSS software (version 24.0), focusing on arithmetic means and standard deviation values. Before conducting comparison tests, the data sets were subjected to normality analysis to test for any significant deviations. The normality test primarily examines the skewness and kurtosis coefficients, and results within the ± 1 range indicate that the data sets are normally distributed [10].

When the normality test analyses in Table 2 are examined, parametric tests were used in the analyses because the pre-test and post-test measurements showed normal distribution. In cases where there are multiple dependent variables, applying MANOVA analysis helps reduce type 1 error [57]. Since there are two dependent variables in this study—school belonging and sportspersonship behavior—MANOVA analysis was conducted. In this analysis, comparisons were examined using the Bonferroni test, and the homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices was assessed with Box's M test. Since Box's M test scores were homogeneously distributed, the "Wilks' Lambda (λ)" value was considered [11]. Paired-Samples t-test analysis was used to compare pre-test and post-test paired tests. In experimental research, the difference scores between pre-test and post-test results are examined to determine the impact level of the applied intervention [11]. The difference scores were obtained by subtracting the pre-test scores from the post-test scores of the students. MANOVA analyses were performed using these difference scores in comparisons by educational level and gender. The influence of sportspersonship behaviors on the sense of school belonging was examined using regression analysis based on the difference scores, and a significance level of 0.05 was considered in the comparisons. The η² value was used to calculate the magnitude of the differences detected after the test. The η² value is interpreted as 0.01 small, 0.06 medium, and 0.14 large effect power [14]. The data were handled in this direction.

Table 2 Normality analysis

Results

It was found that both pre-test and post-test measurements of school sense of belonging and sportspersonship behavior in the students participating in the experimental and control groups showed positive levels. The experimental group students demonstrated positive developments in their sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behavior as a result of 16 weeks of traditional children's games interventions (p < 0.05). In contrast, there was no significant change observed in the sense of school sense of belonging scale in the control group students by the end of the process (p > 0.05), although significant declines were noted in their sportspersonship behavior during physical education lessons (p < 0.05). The η² value of the difference between the pre-test and post-test measurements of the groups is less than 0.01 in all analyses, indicating a small effect size (Table 3).

Table 3 Comparison of students' pre-test and post-test scores within groups using paired-samples t test

When examining the post-test scores of participation in traditional children's games (TCGs) using MANOVA analysis, a significant difference was found in favor of those who participated in the TCGs [λ = 0.974; F(2, 1868) = 24,695; p = 0.000; η² = 0.026]. Higher scores were observed in favor of the experimental group in both the school sense of belonging scale [F(1, 13,337) = 29.975; p = 0.000; η² = 0.016] and the sportspersonship behavior scale in physical education course scale [F(1, 15,229) = 40.859; p = 0.000; η² = 0.021]. Since the effect size (η²) for the differences obtained between the experimental and control groups falls within the range of 0.01 to 0.06, it can be considered to have a low effect size (Table 4).

Table 4 Comparison of students' post-test scores between groups using MANOVA

When examining the difference scores between the pre-test and post-test based on educational level using MANOVA, a significant difference was found in the school sense of belonging scale [λ = 0.997; F(2, 1868) = 3.090; p = 0.046; η² = 0.003]. High school students showed greater improvement in their sense of school belonging. A significant difference was observed in the school belonging scale [F(1, 2190) = 4.801; p = 0.029; η² = 0.003], while no statistical difference was found in the sportspersonship behavior scale in physical education course [F(1, 1387) = 3.359; p = 0.067]. The effect of high school students developing a greater sense of school belonging (η² = 0.00) is insufficient in terms of strength (Table 5).

Table 5 Comparison of difference scores of students according to their education level with MANOVA

When analyzing the difference scores between the pre-test and post-test based on gender using MANOVA, it can be concluded that there are no overall differences [λ = 0.997; F(2, 1868) = 2.543; p = 0.079]. No significant differences were found in the school sense of belonging scale [F(1, 1306) = 2.860; p = 0.091]. However, in the sportspersonship behavior scale in physical education course, a relatively significant increase was observed in favor of male students [F(1, 1598) = 3.870; p = 0.049; η² = 0.002]. Overall, no significant differences were found in the development of school sense of belonging and sportsmanship behavior based on gender (Table 6).

Table 6 Comparison of difference scores according to students' gender with MANOVA

Table 7 shows that there is a moderate and significant relationship between students' sportspersonship behavior and school sense of belonging (R: 0.331, R²: 0.110, p: 0.000), with sportspersonship behavior explaining 11% of the total variance. This means that 11% of the variance in the dependent variable (school sense of belonging) is explained by the independent variable included in the model (sportspersonship behavior). According to standardized regression coefficients (β), a one-unit increase in sportspersonship behavior leads to a 33.1% increase in school sense of belonging.

Table 7 Regression analysis to explain the sense of school belonging through sportsmanship behavior through difference scores

Discussion

The research findings reveal that both the experimental and control groups of students exhibited positive levels of school sense of belonging in their pre-test and post-test scores. The positive level of school sense of belonging is crucial for the development of purpose-oriented educational interventions. Previous studies have identified that students' school sense of belonging tends to be positive [25, 29]. At the end of the second semester of the 2023–2024 academic year, an increase in school sense of belonging was observed in the experimental group’s post-test scores, whereas no significant change in school sense of belonging was observed in the control group. Bang et al., [5] found that adolescents’ school sense of belonging increased as a result of participation in team and individual sports within the school environment. Particularly, adolescents engaged in team sports exhibited more positive school attachment. Similarly, traditional children's games (TCGs) that include team activities also enhanced school sense of belonging, showing a positive increase in favor of the experimental group. Atabey [3] reported that students' school sense of belonging positively changed in accordance with their future expectations and self-efficacy. In line with this result, positive future expectations and competence in games positively impacted students' school sense of belonging. When school activities are goal-oriented, they fulfill the school's expectations. Allipour Birgani and Shehni Yailagh [1] found that students with good self-efficacy through academic effort at school exhibited high levels of school sense of belonging. It is evident that continued engagement with school leads to quality educational outcomes. Alverson [2] found that students who continued to school with enthusiasm showed increased school attachment and academic success, while their expectations of hopelessness decreased. Cornell et al., [16] found that in a disciplined school that values student support, students' academic success as well as their school attachment improved. The learning climate established at school has become a supportive tool for determining students' emotions. Students participating in TCGs obtained opportunities for learning, fun, and competition at school, made the necessary effort, and took active roles in the project. Consequently, a positive development in school sense of belonging was observed by the end of the process. Since control group students were not included in different learning groups supportive of their development in the school environment, no significant change in school sense of belonging was observed.

The school sense of belonging scores of the experimental group students were found to be higher than those of the control group in the post-test measurement. Participation in TCGs played a supportive role in strengthening students' school attachment. Posner and Vandell [41] identified that students who engaged in extracurricular activities and games developed better adjustment skills and more positive emotional states compared to those who did not participate in these activities. Kangalgil et al., [29] found that participation in school sports resulted in more positive school sense of belonging. Temel et al., [63] found that students participating in school band teams had positive attitudes toward school, with the school supporting socialization, achievement, and emotional development. School sports, music, arts, and drawing activities focusing on the development of students' special talents enhance students' school sense of belonging. Students with a strong school attachment are generally high-achieving, happy, and content [39]. The TCGs organized in Eskil facilitated students in establishing positive school connections. As no interventions were applied to the control group, there were no changes observed in their school perceptions. If we wish for students to have a positive school experience, we should introduce diverse activities into the school environment that will lead to their development. Consistent with the study results, TCGs continue to be a strong support for educational stakeholders.

Examination of pre-test and post-test sportspersonship behavior scores shows that students exhibited positive behaviors. Students' positive behaviors in sports organizations and their avoidance of undesirable behaviors are consistent with findings in the literature [6, 48, 68]. By the end of the second semester of the 2023–2024 academic year, the experimental group showed an increase in sportspersonship behaviors in the post-test, while the control group showed a decline in sportspersonship behaviors. Damayani et al., [17] and Dewi et al., [18] found that students playing TCGs developed fundamental moral values such as honesty, leadership, cooperation, and awareness, completing their character development healthily. Children with character development in line with these fundamental values exhibited sportspersonship behaviors in games that required effort. Children playing TCGs adopt social characteristics such as rule adherence, sharing, patience, and self-regulation [34]. Thus, children engaging in physical activities move according to expected behavior patterns.

Students who participated in TCGs exhibited more positive sportspersonship behaviors compared to those who did not participate in the games. According to Gencheva et al., [22], students who did not internalize the value of sportspersonship as taught by their parents and schools engaged in undesirable behaviors with a "win at all costs" mentality in sports environments. Furthermore, this situation was normalized by the students, with cheating being considered as acceptable as winning [42]. As participation in elite-level sports increased, winning became the sole focus, and moral values were disregarded. Shrout et al., [50] found that individuals participating at a professional level in sports had poor moral reasoning skills. Notable changes in sportspersonship behaviors were not observed with traditional physical education applications in schools. Research by Temel and Mamak [61] indicated that students participating in TCGs exhibited fair, honest, helpful, and friendly competition, whereas those directly participating in physical education lessons sometimes disregarded moral values. The educational value of TCGs was explained to the participants, emphasizing the importance of effort over winning. As a result, students participating in the project enjoyed the effort put into the games more than the outcome. The positive change in their behaviors suggests that TCGs may be used effectively in character education.

The educational level has not been a determining factor in students' sportspersonship behaviors. Burgueño et al., [9] found that middle school students with task-oriented motivation exhibited sportspersonship behaviors in physical education courses. When comparing sportspersonship behaviors across different educational levels, varying results were obtained. Türkçapar et al., [67] found that middle school students' sportspersonship behaviors in physical education lessons were in better condition compared to high school students. Özsarı and Pepe [40] found that high school students participating in a hockey national team camp exhibited better sportspersonship behaviors than university athletes. High school students were very meticulous regarding rules and management. Depending on the context of the research and the characteristics of the sample group, different findings are observed in the literature. The lack of differences in sportspersonship behaviors in Eskil district, in terms of formal education levels, highlights the consistency of the education provided in the district. The small size of the district and the high level of interaction might also contribute to this situation. The study identified a significant change in school belongingness among high school students. TCGshave been effective in developing positive attitudes toward school among high school students. Neel and Fuligni [39] found that high school students' sense of school belonging changed, and this change was related to academic success and motivation. Motivated students believed that school provided opportunities for growth. Atabey [3] found that high school students' sense of school belonging increased with their rising future expectations and self-efficacy. When the school climate contributes to high school students' learning experiences, provides peer support, and offers opportunities for enjoyment, a strong bond with the school is formed [1, 16]. The more frequently students feel that their teachers listen to what they say, the more they believe that their teachers care about and respect them, and the more interesting and enjoyable they find school activities [15]. Organizing extracurricular activities that consider high school students' psychological needs both fosters school belongingness and serves as a strong protective measure against school dropout [63]. The importance of the findings of the TCGs project implemented in Eskil in terms of connecting high school students with school is striking.

The development of students' sense of school belonging is shaped by their participation in TCGs, independent of the gender variable. Wei and Chen's [69] study found that students who received support from teachers and peers developed their attachment to school independently of gender. When students' behaviors are managed with an internal locus of control, without external supervision, and when students take responsibility for self-regulating their behaviors, they develop a sense of attachment to school [4]. Yanık [71] found that extracurricular sports activities conducted in high school are effective in fostering a sense of school belonging and that gender is not a significant variable. Bang et al., [5] reported that participation in sports affects adolescents' sense of school belonging and depressive moods. Female and male students who participated in team and individual sports reported lower depressive moods and a better sense of school attachment compared to those who did not participate in sports. Participation in sports emerged as the most significant determinant. Schools that allow students to develop according to their abilities can achieve their goals regarding desired educational outcomes. Contrary to these results, there are also studies in the scientific community that argue that other factors, along with the gender variable, are effective in developing a sense of school belonging. Female students with high perceptions of social support and academic self-efficacy have higher school attachment than male students [12]. In a longitudinal study by Neel and Fuligni [39], it was found that at the beginning of high school years, girls had a higher sense of school belonging than boys, but throughout high school, girls' school attachment decreased while boys' remained stable. It is predicted that emotional changes may occur over time in both male and female students. Male students who have the opportunity to demonstrate their sports talents at school also experience positive feelings toward the school [73]. As can be understood from the literature, when we consider the gender variable along with other factors, we can make a meaningful interpretation. The conclusion to be drawn from these results is that TCGs that support the skills of all students have been effective in fostering a sense of school belonging by supporting students' development.

The development of students' sportspersonship behaviors is shaped by their participation in TCGs, independent of the gender variable. Gencheva et al., [22] found that children raised in special social institutions in Bulgaria, who lack parental care and actively participate in sports, exhibited similar sportspersonship behaviors to children from normal families, with no differences based on gender. Physical education lessons in schools that prioritize student-centered approaches allow both male and female students to develop as a whole, fostering sportspersonship behaviors [8]. Participation in school sports or being a licensed athlete in a particular sport has been valuable for developing positive behaviors [31, 43] . When school success and motivation are combined with sports organizations, it has been found that female students exhibit better sportspersonship behaviors than male students [19]. In relation to the inclination towards physical education lessons, female students have shown positive development in sportspersonship [66]. Male athletes who emphasize task-oriented motivation and suppress their ego have also demonstrated behaviors consistent with sporting virtue, revealing that males can be as effective as females in prosocial behaviors [13, 46]. The study's findings suggest that TCGs adopt a task-oriented approach that emphasizes effort over winning.

A positive and significant relationship has been found between the sportspersonship behaviors displayed by students in TCGs and their sense of school belonging. The sportspersonship behaviors exhibited by students explained 11% of the variance in their sense of school belonging. When students who play traditional games are guided towards appropriate sportspersonship behaviors, they establish a positive connection with the school. Kavussanu et al., [31] found that prosocial and antisocial behaviors observed in football are related to the perceived performance climate. Athletes who perceive their environment positively exhibit appropriate sportspersonship behaviors. Therefore, in schools responsible for the education of students, the concept of success should be explained, and information should be provided on the behaviors and outcomes necessary to achieve it. After this education, students should continue working by setting their own goals. Ekinci and Koç [19] examined the relationship between middle school students' perceptions of success and their sportspersonship behaviors. Schools that instill a task-oriented sense of achievement in students have achieved their target outcomes in promoting sportspersonship behaviors. Sánchez-Alcaraz et al., [46] and Gómez Mármol et al., [23] found that students in a school environment with low exposure to school violence are more likely to engage in sportspersonship behaviors. Bang et al., [5] examined the relationship between participation in team and individual sports, depressive symptoms, and sense of school belonging in the school environment. It was found that participation in team sports predicted lower levels of depression both directly and indirectly through school belonging. Students with lower levels of depression are more likely to display appropriate behaviors during games. Rudd and Stokowski [45] found that when examining the spectator behaviors of a group with high fan loyalty, their attachment to the university team did not trigger negative behaviors. Individuals and groups who set goals while being aware of their potential continue to engage in sportspersonship behaviors [51]. To foster a strong sense of school belonging and help students achieve their academic goals, TCGs should be played, and an emphasis should be placed on sportspersonship behaviors. Consistent with the literature, students' connection to the school will strengthen, and they will see the school as an opportunity for development.

Conclusion and recommendations

The research results showed that the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behavior scores of students in both the experimental and control groups were positive. The sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors of students in the experimental group improved in favor of the post-test. While there was no significant change in the sense of school belonging in the control group, a decline in sportspersonship behaviors was recorded. The experimental group showed more significant improvement in both the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors compared to the control group. Although there was an improvement in middle school students' sense of school belonging, high school students showed greater emotional development. No significant differences were found in the sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors based on the gender of the students. Sportspersonship behavior predicted 11% of the variance in the sense of school belonging, indicating that positive sportspersonship behaviors increased school attachment among children. It was observed that students who participated in TCGs developed a more positive sense of school belonging and sportspersonship behaviors over time. Based on the study results, it is recommended to encourage participation in TCGs, integrate them into physical education lessons, and increase participation in tournaments, considering the positive outcomes for students.

Practical recommendations

• Traditional games are low-cost applications that can make many students active in class without requiring much course material. Therefore, it may be appropriate to use them in physical education classes from an educational perspective.

• Along with traditional games, it can provide students with educational goals such as playing games with rules, accepting defeat, and not exaggerating the joy when they win.

• In regions with high school dropout rates, increased school commitment can be increased with the increase in in-school activities.

Future lines of research

• It can be thought that with the "I Live My Values ​​with Traditional Games Project" students will have a structure that internalizes the spirit of fair play in sports environments.

• Traditional games can guide educators in ways such as lower school dropout and lower crime rates, based on the view that they can create school loyalty and love in students.

Limitations of the study

• This study is limited to middle school and high school students studying in the official schools of the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Turkey, Aksaray/Eskil, in the 2023–2024 academic year.

• The study was conducted in Eskil starting from the second term, and during the 16 weeks, approximately 2500 students and 400 teachers were actively involved by including all schools. The research results are limited to the responses of 1871 students who volunteered to participate in the study.