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The relationship between mindfulness and depression: examining the chain mediating role of shyness and core self-evaluation

BMC Psychology volume 13, Article number: 428 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

There is evidence to suggest that individuals with the personality trait of shyness are more prone to depression, and a possible key factor in the process of shyness leading to depression is core self-evaluation. Given the prevalence and cross-cultural nature of shyness in humans, it is crucial to understand the factors that reduce shyness, enhance core self-evaluation, and ultimately lower depression. This study aims to examine whether mindfulness affects depression through sequential pathways involving shyness and core self-evaluation.

Method

We adopted a two-phase sampling method, recruiting an initial sample of 646 college students (Sample 1). We conducted a questionnaire survey using the Chinese version of the Five Factor Mindfulness Scale, the revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, the Core Self-Evaluation Scale, and the Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory-II. We constructed a chain mediation model to examine the relationship between mindfulness and depressive symptoms, with shyness and core self-evaluation as mediating variables. Subsequently, based on Sample 1, we purposively selected a subsample of 269 college students with higher shyness scores (Sample 2) and re-examined the chain mediation effect.

Results

Higher levels of mindfulness were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms, and this relation was mediated through shyness and core self-evaluation.

Conclusions

These results highlight that mindfulness can influence depression through the sequential pathway of shyness and core self-evaluation, and the importance of considering mindfulness practices in psychological interventions to help college students, especially shy college students, to reduce their shyness levels, improve core self-evaluation levels, and ultimately prevent and/or treat their depressive symptoms.

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Introduction

Depression refers to a collective term for a series of typical symptoms, including low mood, diminished interest, sluggish thinking, and physical discomfort [1]. The 2019 Global Burden of Disease Study indicates that depression is the fourth highest burden of disease among the 10-24-year-old cohort and is the most common mental health issue among adolescents [2]. The Health Minds Network for Research on Adolescent and Young Adult Mental Health, which conducts an annual survey of students at numerous of colleges and universities, found that the rate of depression detection among college students increased from 22.0% in 2007 to 36.6% in 2020 [3]. Similarly, a large-scale online survey of Chinese colleges and universities showed that 45.0% of college students had mental health problems, with a detection rate of 21.1% for depressive symptoms [4]. A recent meta-analysis showed that the rate of depression among Chinese college students was 28.4% [5]. Overall, the prevalence of depression among Chinese college students is extremely high. Depressive symptoms are associated with an increased risk of suicidal behavior [6], substance abuse [7], physical and mental failure, and premature death [2]. These issues not only place a significant burden on students and society, but also often persist into adulthood [8].

The causes of depression are complex. According to the quality-stress theory of depression, it primarily arises from a combination of cognitive qualities (e.g., personality, attributional style) and stressful events [9]. This theory posits that life stresses stimulate intrinsic depression-tendency qualities within individuals, transforming these latent tendencies into actual depression. The model suggests that continuous exposure to stress can cause individuals with a predisposition for internalising problematic qualities to develop depressive responses and experience depressive moods. The quality-stress model predicts that depression occurs when people’s quality tendencies interact with stress levels above a certain threshold [10].

Shyness, as an important personality trait, refers to the tendency of individuals to feel embarrassed, nervous, or worried in front of others because they feel evaluated by others during interpersonal interactions [11]. It is a common personality trait in humans [12] and a cross-cultural phenomenon [13]. Individuals with traits of shyness are more prone to depression [14], which hinders their personal development and socialization process. It has been found that shy individuals are associated with a higher susceptibility to depression. One study explored the relations between shyness and depression using undergraduate students and found that shyness positively predicted depression; shy individuals were more likely to experience depressive symptoms [15]. Geng et al. [16] used regression modeling to show that shyness significantly predicted depressive symptoms, with high levels of shyness strongly associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing depression. Further, longitudinal studies have also found that shyness at age 6 predicted depressive symptoms at age 18 [17].

In traditional Chinese culture, however, the Confucian idea of self-restraint makes shyness experiences more common among college students [18], which severely affects their physical and mental health development [19].

In the process of shyness leading to depression, a possible key factor is core self-evaluation. Core self-evaluation has been defined as a person’s most fundamental conclusion or bottom-line assessment of their abilities and values [20]. Self-esteem is considered the most basic manifestation of core self-evaluation, representing one’s overall self-worth, while broad self-efficacy, encompassing estimates of one’s basic ability to cope, perform, and succeed, is regarded as an indicator of positive core evaluation [21]. Previous research has suggested that individuals’ core self-evaluations are relatively stable over time [22]. According to the cognitive model of depression [23], the relationship between individual difference variables (e.g., shyness) and depressive symptoms reflects a negative cognitive process. Some individuals, particularly those who are shy, hold negative views of themselves and the world, making them more susceptible to depression [24]. Specifically, shy people tend to have low core self-evaluations and are more likely to experience depression [16]. Consequently, core self-evaluation is likely to mediate the relationship between shyness and depressive symptoms.

Several empirical studies indirectly support this idea. Core self-evaluation and its specific characteristics, namely self-esteem and self-efficacy, have been suggested to mediate the association between shyness and mood disorders [25, 26]. Empirical evidence also supports the association of core self-evaluation with shyness and depressive symptoms. Firstly, studies have shown that shy individuals tend to exhibit negative self-evaluations and lack confidence [26]. Additionally, behavioral inhibition, a construct similar to shyness [27], is negatively associated with negative self-assessment and negative self-bias [28]. Research by Coplan and Rubin [13] found that shyness predicts an individual’s core self-evaluation. The negative relationship between shyness and core self-evaluation has been directly verified [29]. Secondly, core self-evaluation, as a personality trait with broad content and diverse structure [30], influences external information processing through cognitive schemas [31] and plays a crucial role in individual emotional experience and behavioral improvement. People’s self-evaluation is important for the occurrence and development of psychological distress [32]. Lei et al. [33] demonstrated that core self-evaluation can affect individual emotion regulation and depression levels, with students having low core self-evaluation being more likely to experience depressive symptoms. A recent empirical study also found that lower levels of core self-evaluation predicted higher levels of depression [34].

Overall, individuals with higher levels of shyness tend to exhibit a more subjective and non-accepting cognitive attitude towards the outside world, as well as a habit of negative cognition when judging things around them. Negative cognitive styles, in turn, lead shy people to often carry negative emotions and exaggerate external threats, resulting in a loss of self-confidence, a lack of self-efficacy, and an intense fear of their surroundings. Consequently, the shyer individuals are, the more they are accustomed to adopting negative cognitive styles, constantly judging their environment, lacking self-confidence, generating negative emotions, and ignoring the present moment. Long-term negative cognition may lead to depression.

Mindfulness is the state of consciousness that consciously directs attention to present-moment goals and treats experiences or experiences in the here and now without judgment [35, 36]. It emphasises sustained attention and nonjudgmental acceptance of internal and external stimuli in the present moment [37]. Mindfulness advocates for not stagnating in the past, not worrying about the future, and focusing on the present. It emphasizes openness and acceptance of experience without subjective evaluation [36]. This approach can significantly reduce psychological conflicts and alleviate various negative emotions [35]. It helps in maintaining emotional stability and enhancing individual emotional regulation [38].

According to the Mindful Coping Model, adopting a mindful approach to face stressful events in the social environment can help individuals positively face negative emotions and release stress [39]. Shapiro et al. [35] argued that a high degree of tolerance of unpleasant states as a manifestation of the Mindful Re-perceiving Model can promote the flexibility of individuals from cognition to emotion to behavior. It is believed that mindfulness can effectively alleviate symptoms of depression, and all kinds of pressures and negative emotions in daily life. This promotes mental health enhancement and facilitates better adaptation to the environment and coping with challenges [40]. Therefore, we proposed Hypothesis 1: Mindfulness is significantly negatively correlated with depression.

In a state of mindfulness, individuals become aware of their current reality and what they are doing [41], which can help them learn to accept and empathize with their experiences rather than judge them [36]. They created awareness of the present, rather than relying on automatic guidance, and learned new methods to cope with situations [42]. Therefore, some researchers believe that one effective way to reduce shyness is based on mindfulness [43]. A study by Zheng et al. [44] found a significant negative correlation between a person’s level of shyness and their level of mindfulness, with higher levels of mindfulness being associated with lower levels of shyness. Another study on mindfulness interventions for fifth and sixth grade elementary school students [43] found that at the end of eight two-hour “mindfulness-based stress management” interventions and one month follow-up, the experimental group scored significantly lower than the control group in terms of shyness, lack of determination, and confidence. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that mindfulness may affect depression by influencing an individual’s shyness. Hence, we proposed Hypothesis 2: Shyness mediates the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

According to core self-evaluation theory, individuals with low levels of core self-evaluation often hold negative views of themselves, such as “I am worthless” and “things in my life are out of my control”. Over time, these views form negative thinking patterns [20] that can lead to depression [45]. Kabat-Zinn [36] posits that mindfulness is a non-judgmental attitude toward the present moment. People with high levels of mindfulness can maintain distance from their inner thoughts and external circumstances, reducing their susceptibility to negative events and perceptions. By focusing non-judgmental attention on the here and now, individuals are less likely to be overly affected by negative thinking patterns [46] or to engage in self-denial. Conversely, the absence of mindfulness is characterized by habitual negative self-thinking, which plays a crucial role in the self-evaluation process [47]. Therefore, people with high levels of mindfulness tend to accept their thoughts, feelings, and situations, generating more positive self-evaluations [32, 48].

Empirical evidence supports the relationship between mindfulness and self-evaluation factors. Brown and Ryan [49] demonstrated a significant correlation between individuals’ levels of mindfulness and self-esteem, with higher levels of mindfulness predicting higher self-esteem. Greason and Cashwell’s study [50] showed a strong correlation between higher levels of mindfulness and higher levels of self-efficacy. Bowen et al. [51] revealed that higher levels of mindfulness predicted internal control personality tendencies. Pepping et al. [52] similarly demonstrated that high levels of mindfulness were predictive of high self-esteem. Yang and Guo’s findings [53] indicated that individuals with high levels of mindfulness have high self-efficacy in regulating their emotions. Hosseinian et al.’s study [54] showed that mindfulness intervention had a significant effect on improving core self-evaluation, while Kuyken et al. [55] found that viewing oneself with a mindful attitude could promote problem-solving and enhance psychological positivity.

Individuals with high levels of core self-evaluation, who hold positive beliefs about themselves, experience more positive emotions in their lives and are likely to experience lower levels of depression. Thus, mindfulness may impact depression by influencing an individual’s core self-evaluation. We propose Hypothesis 3: Core self-evaluation mediates the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

Moreover, due to the close relationship between shyness and core self-evaluation, specifically the significant negative correlation [26], mindfulness is likely to enhance an individual’s core self-evaluation level by reducing their shyness level. And according to the significant negative correlation between core self-evaluation and depression [33, 56], individuals with high levels of core self-evaluation often have high self-esteem and self-efficacy, which can lead to positive emotional experiences and lower levels of depression.

While previous research has established correlations between mindfulness, depression, shyness, and core self-evaluation, a comprehensive investigation into the complete pathway of these interconnected factors remains unexplored. Notably, studies have demonstrated a significant positive correlation between core self-evaluation and mindfulness [57], as well as the mediating role of core self-evaluation in the relationship between shyness and depression [16]. However, there is a lack of research examining the sequential mediating effects of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

To address this gap, this study aims to investigate the complex relationship between mindfulness, depression, shyness, and core self-evaluation among college students. Specifically, this study aims to elucidate whether mindfulness affects depression through sequential pathways involving shyness and core self-evaluation. By focusing on this population, this study aims to provide a theoretical basis for reducing depression levels in college students, especially shy ones, from a mindfulness perspective. Based on previous research, we propose Hypothesis 4: Shyness and core self-evaluation have a chain mediated effect between mindfulness and depression. The proposed chain mediation model is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

A chain mediation model

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Research design

We adopted a two-phase sampling method. Initially, a larger sample (general sample, Sample 1) was selected from college students for the initial analysis, and SPSS and the PROCESS macro were employed to test the hypotheses of this study. Subsequently, within Sample 1, college students with shyness scores above the median were purposively selected to form Sample 2 (shyness sample). In Sample 2, Mplus was used for path analysis to revalidate the mediating effect. This research protocol was thoroughly reviewed and approved by the Chongqing Normal University (CNU) Ethics Committee, as evidenced by the reference number CNU-PSY-202407-009.

Methods

Participants

Sample1

Our study specifically targeted students actively enrolled in college, establishing this as our primary inclusion criterion. The exclusion criterion was set as involuntary participation in this study. In line with these criteria, we selected participants from three colleges in the southwest region of China. A total of 900 students were initially enrolled to participate in the survey. After excluding invalid submissions, a total of 646 valid questionnaires were collected, forming sample 1(general sample) with a recovery rate of 71.78%. Among the total sample, 158 (24.4%) were first years, 182 (28.2%) were second years, 215 (33.3%) were third years, and 91 (14.1%) were fourth years. The mean age of the participants was 21.43 (SD = 2.25). All participants provided written informed consent in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, ensuring that they were fully aware that their participation was entirely voluntary, unpaid, and could withdraw from the study at any time.

Sample2

Based on Sample 1, we selected participants with shyness scores higher than the median (specifically, shyness scores greater than 39) to form Sample 2 (shyness sample), comprising a total of 269 college students.

Among the sample, 134 (49.8%) were males, 135 (50.2%) were females. The mean age of the participants was 21.04 (SD = 2.04). The shyness score of this sample of 269 individuals (x̄=45.77, SD = 4.64) was significantly higher (t = 32.81, p < 0.001) than that of the remaining 377 individuals (x̄=32.64, SD = 5.26) in Sample 1, and the depression score of the former (x̄=14.12, SD = 8.99) was also significantly higher (t = 8.92, p < 0.001) than that of the latter (x̄=8.29, SD = 7.55). In terms of mindfulness, the score of the 269 individuals (x̄=116.76, SD = 10.32) was significantly lower (t=-7.40, p < 0.001) than that of the 377 individuals (x̄=122.82, SD = 10.23). Similarly, in terms of core self-evaluation, the former (x̄=29.74, SD = 6.38) scored significantly lower (t=-11.21, p < 0.001) than the latter (x̄=35.04, SD = 5.582).

Procedure

Distribution of consent forms to students

The consent form was distributed to the students. The purpose of the study and their participation in it were explained to them in detail. Subsequently, the students were asked to sign the consent form indicating their voluntary participation.

Collection of completed questionnaires

Each participant completed a series of questionnaires, which included: The Chinese version of the Five Factor Mindfulness Scale by Deng [58], The Chinese Version of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II-C) by Yang et al. [59], The Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale by Xiang et al. [60], The Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) by Du et al. [61].

Upon completion, all questionnaires were collectively collected by the administrative staff of each school. This process ensured that the research team maintained no direct contact with participants during the questionnaire completion stage, thereby preserving the completeness and consistency of the responses.

Measures

Chinese version of the five factor mindfulness scale

The Chinese version of the Five Factor Mindfulness Scale [58] was used to assess college students’ mindfulness levels. The questionnaire consists of 39 items and includes five dimensions: Observing, Describing, Acting with awareness, Nonjudging of inner experience, and Nonreactivity to inner experience. A 5-point Likert scale was used, with 1 representing complete non-compliance and 5 representing complete compliance. In our sample, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.70.

Chinese version of the Beck depression Inventory-II (BDI-II-C)

The BDI-II is a self-report scale of depressive symptoms developed by Beck et al. [62]. It consists of 21 items that cover the emotional and cognitive aspects of clinical depression. Respondents rate the severity of depressive symptoms over the past two weeks on a 5-point Likert scale. The version used in this study, translated by Yang et al. [59], has an optimal boundary score of ≥ 28 and ≥ 15 for screening depression and all depression in Chinese adolescents, respectively [63]. In this study, it’s Cronbach’s alpha is 0.89.

The revised cheek and Buss shyness scale

We used the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, developed by Cheek [64], was revised by Xiang et al. [60]. This scale consists of 13 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from “1“(strongly disagree) to “5” (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating higher levels of shyness. The median score for each item is 3, so the median score for the entire scale is 39. Items 3, 6, 9, and 12 are reverse scored. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was 0.8, indicating good internal consistency.

Core Self-Evaluations scale (CSES)

The Core Self-Evaluations Scale, developed by Judge et al. [22], was translated and revised by Du et al. [61]. The revised scale consists of 10 terms, with 2 items removed for cultural compatibility. These items are scored using a Likert 5-point scale ranging from 1 (absolutely not matched) to 5 (absolutely matched). Items 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, and 10 are reverse scored. By calculating the mean score of all items, an individual’s level of core self-evaluation is determined, indicating good internal consistency. The Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale in this study was 0.88, demonstrating good internal consistency.

Data analysis

Data analysis in this study was carried out using SPSS 23.0 and Mplus 8.0. For initial analysis, pairwise Pearson correlation coefficients were computed for all variables. To test the hypothesized mediating effects, we employed the PROCESS macro (version 3.00) for SPSS Hayes [65] (Sample 1) and Mplus 8.0 (Sample 2).

Test for common method bias

To examine our findings for potential common method bias, Harman’s one-factor test was employed for both Sample1 and Sample2. In Sample1, the analysis revealed 19 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor accounted for 17.43% of the variance. In Sample2, the analysis revealed 26 factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor accounted for 14.09% of the variance. Both values are below the threshold of 40%, indicating no significant presence of common method bias in either sample for this study.

Results

Sample1

Preliminary analysis

Utilizing the optimal boundary scoring criteria [63], 207 out of 646 college students surveyed were identified as having mild or higher levels of depression tendency, resulting in a screening rate of 32.043%.

According to Table 1, it can be observed that mindfulness is significantly negatively correlated with shyness (r=-0.38, p < 0.01) and depressive symptoms (r=-0.38, p < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with lower levels of shyness and depressive symptoms. And mindfulness is significantly positively correlated with core self-evaluation (r = 0.48, p < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with better core self-evaluation. In addition, shyness is significantly negatively correlated with core self-evaluation (r=-0.53, p < 0.01), and significantly positively correlated with depressive symptoms (r = 0.41, p < 0.01), indicating that higher levels of shyness are associated with lower levels of core self-evaluation and higher levels of depressive symptoms. Furthermore, there is a significant negative correlation between core self-evaluation and depressive symptoms (r =-0.61, p < 0.01), indicating that lower levels of core self-evaluation are associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. These findings provide support for Hypothesis 1.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics results and correlation matrix for each variable (n = 646)
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Regression analysis

In order to examine the mediating effects of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relationship between mindfulness and depressive symptoms, a multiple regression analysis was conducted using PROCESS 3.00.

Depressive symptoms(Y) were treated as the dependent variable, while mindfulness(X), shyness(M1), and core self-evaluation(M2) were treated as independent variables. Gender and age were controlled for in the analysis.

First, the predictive effects of mindfulness, shyness, and core self-evaluation on depressive symptoms were examined. Then, the mediating effects of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relationship between mindfulness and depressive symptoms were analysed. According to the regression analysis results presented in Table 2, mindfulness significantly predicted depressive symptoms in a negative direction (β =-0.31, p < 0.001). When mindfulness, shyness, core self-evaluation, and depressive symptoms were included in the regression equation together, mindfulness still significantly predicted depressive symptoms in a negative direction (β=-0.08, p < 0.01). Mindfulness also significantly predicted shyness in a negative direction (β=-0.28, p < 0.001) and positively predicted core self-evaluation (β = 0.20, p < 0.001). Shyness had significant negative predictive effects on core self-evaluation (β=-0.32, p < 0.001) and significant positive predictive effects on depressive symptoms (β = 0.12, p < 0.01). Furthermore, core self-evaluation negatively predicted depressive symptoms significantly (β = -0.69, p < 0.001).

Table 2 Regression analyses of mindfulness, shyness, and core self-evaluation on depression (n = 646)
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The mediating role of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relations between mindfulness and depression

The results of the mediation analysis, as shown in Table 3; Fig. 2, indicate that shyness and core self-evaluation partially mediate the relationship between mindfulness and depressive symptoms (β =-0.23, 95% Bca CI [-0.27, -0.19]), accounting for 74.05% of the total effect. The mediation effect is composed of three indirect effects generated through different pathways. The first indirect effect is through the pathway of mindfulness → shyness → depressive symptoms (β =-0.03, 95% Bca CI [-0.06, -0.01]). The second indirect effect is through the pathway of mindfulness→ core self-evaluation →depressive symptoms (β=-0.13, 95% Bca CI [-0.17, -0.10]). The third indirect effect is through the pathway of mindfulness →shyness → core self-evaluation → depressive symptoms (β=-0.06, 95% Bca CI [-0.08, -0.04]). The data in Table 3 indicate that the three indirect effects account for 10.86%, 43.33%, and 19.90% of the total effect, respectively. The bootstrap 95% confidence intervals for these indirect effects do not include zero, indicating their statistical significance. Therefore, the results confirm Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4.

Table 3 Analysis of mediating effects of mindfulness and depression (n = 646)
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Serial multiple mediating effects involving mindfulness, depression, shyness, and core self-evaluation

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Sample2

Descriptive statistics and related analysis

The descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of each variable are shown in Table 4. Mindfulness is significantly negatively correlated with shyness (r=-0.24, p < 0.01) and depression (r=-0.36, p < 0.01), and significantly positively correlated with core self-evaluation (r = 0.41, p < 0.01). Shyness is significantly positively correlated with depression (r = 0.33, p < 0.01) and significantly negatively correlated with core self-evaluation (r=-0.33, p < 0.01). Core self-evaluation is significantly negatively correlated with depression (r=-0.60, p < 0.01). The findings from Sample 2 provide additional support for Hypothesis 1. A t-test was conducted to examine gender differences for all variables, and the results showed no significant gender differences in any variable. Additionally, an ANOVA was performed to assess age differences in all variables, indicating no significant effects of age on any variable. Therefore, gender and age were not included as control variables in subsequent analyses.

Table 4 Descriptive statistics results and correlation matrix for each variable (n = 269)
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Mediation analyses

Building on the previous analysis, Mplus 8.0 was employed to perform path analysis and re-examine the mediating roles of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relationship between mindfulness and depression. The analysis showed that the model (Fig. 1) was a saturated model, meaning that all the parameters to be estimated were exactly equal to the elements in the covariance matrix, with a degree of freedom of 0. Therefore, fit indices were not estimated, and only the path coefficients were examined [66].

The results are shown in Fig. 3. Mindfulness negatively predicted shyness (β=-0.24, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001), while shyness positively predicted depression (β = 0.13, SE = 0.06, p < 0.05). In addition, mindfulness significantly positively predicted core self-evaluation (β = 0.35, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001) and core self-evaluation significantly negatively predicted depression (β=-0.51, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001). Shyness significantly negatively predicted core self-evaluation (β = -0.25, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001). Nevertheless, the direct predictive effect of mindfulness on depression was not significant (β=-0.12, SE = 0.06, p = 0.054).

The results of the mediation analyses are presented in Table 5. The separate mediation effect of shyness between mindfulness and depression was significant (β=-0.066, 95% Bca CI [-0.148, -0.015]), and the separate mediating effect of core self-evaluation between mindfulness and depression was significant (β=-0.387, 95% Bca CI [-0.559, -0.243]). Shyness and core self-evaluation had a significant chain mediating effect between mindfulness and depression (β=-0.065, 95% Bca CI [-0.128, -0.027]). These findings provide further support for Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Path Diagram of Chain Mediation: Shyness and Core Self-Evaluation in the Mindfulness-Depression Relationship

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Table 5 Summary of mediation results of the mediation models
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Discussion

This study employed a two-phase sampling method to form Sample 1 (general sample) and Sample 2 (shyness sample). For Sample 1, using the optimal boundary scoring criteria [63], this study found that among the 646 college students surveyed, 207 individuals were identified as having mild or higher levels of depression tendency, resulting in a screening rate of 32.04%. This rate is consistent with the national prevalence of depression tendency [5] among college students. These findings highlight the prevalence of depressive symptoms in this population, emphasizing the need for targeted mental health interventions among college students. In addition, in Sample 1, this study examined the relationship between shyness (a personality variable), core self-evaluation (a cognitive factor), and depression, as well as the mediating role of these two factors in the relationship between mindfulness and depression. Subsequently, in Sample 2, the chain mediation effects of shyness and core self-evaluation between mindfulness and depression were re-examined.

In both samples of this study, a significant negative correlation was found between mindfulness and depression, which is consistent with previous research findings [67] and supports Hypothesis 1.

Some scholars have proposed that the tendencies of thinking contemplation, worry, and anxiety caused by symptoms such as depression, as well as the attentional bias of self-distraction, can lead to patients’ brains being occupied by more negative thoughts and emotions. Individuals will strive to avoid or suppress the occurrence of these negative emotions and unpleasant experiences [68], but the white bear effect may occur [69]. However, mindfulness involves conscious observation of these experiences [35]. Through observation, individuals are no longer covered by a vast amount of consciousness and negative emotions. Individuals can take a step back and observe the content of their thoughts and emotions from a decentralized perspective. This shift in perspective can reduce the impact of immediate negative thoughts and emotions on individuals [70], without being controlled by them [71]. Therefore, people with high levels of mindfulness are less likely to fall into their negative thoughts [72], and therefore have lower levels of depression [40]. This suggests that increased mindfulness may help reduce depression among college students.

In addition, a significant positive correlation was also observed between shyness and depression, aligning with previous research findings [14, 15]. Core self-evaluation was negatively correlated with depression, consistent with previous research findings [33, 45]. Furthermore, mindfulness was found to be negatively correlated with shyness, corroborating previous studies [44]. These findings have practical significance and provide a reference for addressing depression among college students, especially those with high levels of shyness. They also lay a foundation for further mediation analysis on the roles of shyness and core self-evaluation in the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

In our study, we found that shyness plays an independent mediating role between mindfulness and depression in both Sample1 and sample 2. In other words, mindfulness can influence shyness in college students, which in turn affects their depression. Specifically, individuals with high levels of mindfulness tend to be less shy, which subsequently leads to lower levels of depression. Hypothesis 2 has been confirmed.

Many studies have shown a significant positive correlation between shyness and depression. For example, Gao et al. [14] used undergraduate students as research subjects to explore this relationship and found that shyness can positively predict depression, indicating that shy individuals are more likely to suffer from depression. Geng et al. [16] employed a regression model and found that shyness significantly predicted depressive symptoms, suggesting that individuals with high levels of shyness have a higher probability of experiencing depressive. Empirical research has also demonstrated that shyness at age 6 predicts depressive symptoms at age 18 [17]. This aligns with the diathesis-stress model of depression [73], which posits that shyness, as an individual personality trait, makes individuals more likely to experience negative emotions when faced with external pressure, thereby increasing their susceptibility to depression. Shy individuals frequently experience social anxiety and interpersonal problems, such as peer rejection, victimization, and poor relationship quality [74], which are strong precursors of depression [75]. Therefore, shyness is an important predictor of depressive symptoms. Mindfulness, on the other hand, involves moment-to-moment awareness of the current reality and one’s actions [41]. It primarily manifests in three aspects: judgemental restraint, directed awareness, and personal attention to the present moment. Mindfulness encourages individuals to focus on the present and process all aspects of their immediate experience, including cognitive, physiological, and behavioral activities. This practice allows individuals to become aware of their daily activities, recognize the automatic functions of the brain, and disengage from automatic thoughts focused on the past and future by immediately acknowledging thoughts, emotions, and physical states [76]. In this way, individuals can understand the internal and external realms freely and without distortion, and are better equipped to face a wide range of thoughts, emotions, and experiences, both pleasant and unpleasant [77]. In essence, mindfulness reduce judgement, increases awareness of psychological emotions, and promotes acceptance of negative emotions when they occur. This increased awareness physical, sensory and cognitive perspectives allows for an effective response to negative events, and enhances spontaneity and reality. Mindfulness helps people detach from judgments that lead to shyness, bringing them into the present moment. This process enhances self-confidence and self-esteem, thereby reducing personal shyness. In addition, mindfulness has a healing effect on the physiological symptoms of shyness, potentially reducing physical tension and discomfort associated with social environments, such as heart rate intensity, “butterflies” in the stomach, and sweaty palms. These effects align with Perez-De-Albeniz and Holmes’s findings [78] that mindfulness promotes bodily relaxation and reduces tension, suggesting that mindfulness can alleviate physiological symptoms of shyness. According to the theory of embodied cognition, the body plays a key role in cognitive process, affecting thoughts, judgments, emotions, and motivations [79]. The effect of mindfulness on reducing the physiological symptoms of shyness can further influence the emotions and cognition of shy individuals. Reducing these symptoms can enhance positive self-perceptions and improve self-efficacy [80]. Research shows that mindfulness can help reduce anxiety [81] and the anxiety associated with shyness [82], increase acceptance, and boost confidence [78]. These changes can lead to more positive emotions and ultimately lower levels of depression in individuals.

Another result that core self-evaluation plays an independent mediating role between mindfulness and depression was also found in both Sample1 and Sample2. That is, increased mindfulness may positively affect the core self-evaluation of college students, thereby reducing their depression. Specifically, individuals with high levels of mindfulness tend to have higher core self-evaluation [83], leading to lower levels of depression [84]. This confirms Hypothesis 3. Mindfulness involves adopting a nonjudgmental attitude toward one’s experience at any time, thus allowing individuals to become less passive and more receptive to their direct experience [70]. This nonjudgemental allows for more choices in responding to real-life stimuli, increasing cognitive, emotional and behavioral flexibility. Consequently, it reduces self-criticism and repetitive negative thinking and avoids the excessive influence of cognitive biases [85]. Conversely, a lack of mindfulness (i.e., unconsciousness) often parallels habitual negative self-thinking, which impacts the self-evaluation process [47]. Therefore, individuals with high mindfulness tend to accept their thoughts, feelings, and situations, which enhances positive self-evaluations. Research has demonstrated the relationship between mindfulness and self-evaluative factors, indicating that higher levels of mindfulness are linked with higher emotional stability [86], self-esteem [87], self-efficacy [50] and an internal locus of control [51]. Therefore, individuals with high mindfulness levels will have correspondingly higher core self-evaluation. Core self-evaluation is a crucial internal resource that helps individuals cope with negative emotions [88]. As a crucial aspect of self-understanding, core self-evaluation is a key factor affecting the occurrence and development of depression [56]. Studies have also found that core self-evaluation significantly and negatively predicts depression, meaning lower levels of core self-evaluation increase the likelihood of depression [89]. Individuals with high core self-evaluation are therefore less likely to be depressed. Overall, individuals with high mindfulness have higher core self-evaluation, which in turn leads to lower depression levels. Thus, core self-evaluation mediates the relationship between mindfulness and depression.

Moreover, the results showed that shyness and core self-evaluation have chain mediating effects on the relationship between mindfulness and depression in both Sample1 and Sample2, thus corroborating our Hypothesis 4. Specifically, mindfulness may first affect the shyness of college students, which then influences their core self-evaluation, ultimately impacting their depression levels. Core self-evaluation is probably a key factor in the relationship between shyness and depression. The cognitive difference model suggests that cognitive processes in shy individuals often tend to be negative. They tend to evaluate themselves negatively, leading to a series of negative effects [90]. First, after experiencing a frustrating event, shy individuals tend to be more inclined to internal attribution [91], easily blaming themselves, which over time exacerbates their self-focus and affects their self-evaluation, leading to a decrease in self-evaluation. Second, shy individuals are often prone to loneliness [29]. However, they often lack social and expression skills, and the fear of rejection often makes shy individuals overly constrain their behavior, which can be counterproductive. Over time, this will also affect individuals’ self-awareness. Third, shy individuals often have excessive self-focused attention [92], making it easier for them to discover their own shortcomings and thus affect their self-evaluation. Therefore, the higher the level of shyness in an individual, the lower their level of core self-evaluation tends to be [16]. Low levels of core self-evaluation often lead to high levels of depression [45]. In other words, shy individuals rarely adopt objective, accepting, non-judgmental mindfulness coping strategies for themselves, but rather tend to use negative cognitive approaches, lowering their confidence and self-efficacy, resulting in low levels of core self-evaluation and subsequent depression. However, college students with higher levels of mindfulness are more likely to perform well in social situations because they have lower levels of shyness [93] and higher levels of core self-evaluation [32], making them less susceptible to depression [94]. In other words, high levels of mindfulness can reduce the level of shyness in individuals, which can further enhance their core self-evaluation, ultimately reducing their levels of depression.

The primary difference between the results of the two sample studies is the significance of the direct effect of mindfulness on depression in the mediation analysis. Specifically, in Sample 1, the analysis revealed a significant direct effect of mindfulness on depression, with shyness and core self-evaluation partially mediating the relationship between mindfulness and depression. In contrast, in Sample 2, the results showed no significant direct effect of mindfulness on depression, with shyness and core self-evaluation completely mediating the relationship between mindfulness and depression. This discrepancy may be attributed to differences in the characteristics of the samples. Sample 1 consisted of a larger general population, where the influence of mindfulness on depression might occur through pathways other than shyness and core self-evaluation, resulting in partial mediation. In contrast, Sample 2 was selected from Sample 1 based on participants with shyness scores above the median. In this sample, the influence of mindfulness on depression was entirely mediated through the pathways of shyness and core self-evaluation. This suggests that shyness is likely the primary factor contributing to depression in this sample. Therefore, shyness and core self-evaluation have a full mediation effect between mindfulness and depression. Our analysis comparing the depression scores of 269 shy participants and 377 non-shy participants revealed that shy participants had significantly higher levels of depression. Additionally, it was found that the shyness scores of shy participants were significantly higher than those of non-shy participants. This finding further supports the analysis that shyness is likely the primary factor contributing to depression among participants in Sample 2.

Limitations and future directions

It is necessary to consider some limitations of the study. First, Due to the cross-sectional design of this study, causation between mindfulness, depression, shyness, and core self-evaluation cannot be conclusively determined. This one-time data collection does not track changes over time. hence longitudinal or quasi-experimental data are necessary to confirm the results obtained. However, the model does help identify the variables of interest for subsequent studies [65]. Future research could employ longitudinal designs or quasi-experimental methods to further validate and deepen the findings. Second, the sample for this study is only college students, potentially affecting the diversity and generalisability of the results. Future studies should include a broader demographic and replicate the study using other samples to guarantee the generalizability of the findings to enhance external validity. Considering that shyness is one of the common personality traits in children and adolescents [12], future research needs to expand the sample to elementary, middle, and high school students. Thirdly, this study only used self-reported questionnaire survey methods to evaluate research variables, which may be influenced by social expectations of participants, resulting in their answers not reliably reflecting their internal experiences, and the validity of the results may be compromised. Additionally, it may also limit the depth of understanding of the complex interplay between the studied variables. Future research could employ a mixed-methods approach or physiological measurements (e.g., EEG) to ensure the validity of results and gain a more nuanced understanding.

Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the literature in a novel way and provides important research implications. This article adopts a two-phase sampling method to explore the serial multiple mediation effects on two critical variables in two samples, advancing previous research. While previous studies have shown that either shyness or core self-evaluation alone mediates the relationship between mindfulness and depression, this study incorporates both in a serial mediation model. Thus, it fills a gap in this field of research. The findings reveal that mindfulness can impacts depression through shyness and core self-evaluation. This investigation contributes to a deeper understanding of the role of mindfulness through the lens of shyness and core self-evaluation. Specifically, our findings suggest that college students’ mindfulness play an important role in reducing shyness and enhancing core self-evaluation, which may prevent college students from experiencing higher levels of depressive symptoms.

In addition, this study also has important practical significance. Considering the cross-cultural universality of shyness, these findings may provide strategies for preventing psychological problems caused by shyness, and fortunately, mindfulness can be learned through training and meditation. So it can be beneficial to college students to integrate and promote mindfulness practices in psychological interventions to help them reduce their shyness levels and to adopt alternative strategies to manage their thoughts and beliefs about themselves. Ultimately, this research has the potential to enhance our comprehension of the complex interplay between these psychological constructs and provide valuable insights for promoting mental well-being in academic settings.

Data availability

The data presented in this study are available at Figshare with DOI number: https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.6084/m9.figshare.27211653.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all participants for their collaboration.

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychological Development Guidance Center for University Students, Student Work Department, Youth League Committee, Sichuan Vocational and Technical College, Suining, Sichuan, 629000, China

    Lin Liu

  2. School of Education, Hubei Business College, Hubei, 430070, China

    Hailing Jia

  3. School of Preschool Education, Chongqing Youth Vocational & Technical College, Chongqing, 400712, China

    Baiyang Qiu

  4. School of Learning, Development and Professional Practice, Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

    Anbang Zhang

  5. School of Education Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China

    Qian Zhang

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  1. Lin Liu
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Contributions

Qian Zhang: conceptualization; formal analysis; project administration; supervision; writing—review and editing. Lin Liu: conceptualization; formal analysis; investigation; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Hailing Jia: conceptualization; data curation; formal analysis; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Baiyang Qiu: conceptualization; data curation; writing—review and editing. Anbang Zhang: conceptualization; supervision; writing—review and editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Qian Zhang.

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Ethics approval and consent to participate

All procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Educational Sciences of Chongqing Normal University (reference number, CNU-PSY-202407-009). Participants signed an informed consent form before beginning the research. The study’s objectives, confidentiality, and anonymity were described, and volunteers were given full authority to complete the questionnaire. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Liu, L., Jia, H., Qiu, B. et al. The relationship between mindfulness and depression: examining the chain mediating role of shyness and core self-evaluation. BMC Psychol 13, 428 (2025). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s40359-025-02774-1

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BMC Psychology

ISSN: 2050-7283

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