Exploring the impact of traditional Chinese martial arts and other martial arts on adolescent aggression: a comparative analysis of underlying mechanisms

Abstract

Background

This study investigates differences in aggression among adolescents practicing traditional Chinese martial arts (MA) and other forms of MA. Additionally, it explores the underlying mechanisms, with a particular focus on the roles of self-control and depression in mediating the relationship between MA participation and aggression.

Methods

A total of 847 adolescent martial arts practitioners (MAP) participated in this study, including 410 traditional Chinese MA practitioners and 437 practitioners of other MA (e.g., Taekwondo, kickboxing). The sample comprised 427 males, with a mean age of 13.45 years (SD = 1.07). Participants completed the Physical Activity Rating Scale, Self-Control Scale, Depression Scale, and Aggression Scale. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 21.0 and Process 4.0, with significance levels set at p < 0.05.

Results

(1) No significant differences in aggression were observed between adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA and those practicing other MA. (2) MA exercise level negatively predicted aggression (β = -0.126, p < 0.001). (3) A chain mediation analysis indicated two pathways through which MA exercise level was associated with aggression: (a) MA exercise level → self-control → aggression, accounting for 68.25% of the total effect, and (b) MA exercise level → self-control → depression → aggression, accounting for 20.63%.

Conclusions

Regular participation in MA is a potential strategy for reducing aggression and psychological distress while enhancing self-control. Educators and MA organizations should emphasize both technical training and ethical instruction to foster self-regulation and emotional well-being in adolescents. Moreover, increasing MA training intensity may further amplify these benefits.

Introduction

In recent years, school bullying and violence have garnered increasing public concern. According to the World Health Organization (2024), data from 40 developing countries indicate that, on average, 42% of boys and 37% of girls experience bullying, while approximately 193,000 homicides occur annually among youth aged 15–29 [1]. Teenage homicide and non-lethal violence not only contribute significantly to the global burden of premature death, injury, and disability but also have profound and often lifelong effects on psychological well-being and social functioning. Aggression, defined as “any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” [2], serves as a direct predictor of bullying and violence. Given its critical role in adolescent development, addressing aggression is essential for fostering safer school environments and promoting healthy social interactions [3].

Aggressive behavior is prevalent among adolescents [4]. According to the 2018 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report, nearly half—approximately 150 million—of students aged 13 to 15 have experienced peer-to-peer violence both inside and outside school [5]. Research suggests that aggression negatively impacts mental health, potentially leading to anger, hostility, and depression [6]. Some studies have also examined differences in aggression across various sports [7]. While aggression can serve as a source of excitement, pleasure, and motivation in sports, it may also lead athletes to prioritize victory over fair play, resulting in rule violations and heightened aggressive behavior [8].

Martial arts (MA) represent a diverse category of combat sports practiced worldwide, encompassing both combative techniques and structured routines. This broad category includes disciplines such as karate, traditional Chinese MA, Taekwondo, Muay Thai, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, and Indonesian self-defense, among others [9]. However, each MA discipline has distinct characteristics. Traditional Chinese MA emphasizes the integration of internal cultivation and external form, balancing strength with flexibility. Beyond combat techniques, it embodies philosophical principles and cultural traditions, often incorporating moral education and the concept of “martial virtue” (Wu De), which fosters character development and ethical conduct [10]. In contrast, modern combat sports prioritize practicality and direct confrontation, focusing on the effectiveness of offensive and defensive strategies to meet competitive demands [11]. Both MA practice and aggression can be understood as behavioral expressions influenced by cognitive processes. MA, as a form of physical activity, is shaped by individual ideology and training philosophy, making its impact on aggression an important subject of study.

Sports interventions have been widely recognized as effective in reducing aggression [12]. The psychological and social control functions of sports have been long acknowledged. Erich Fromm posited that sports not only alleviate psychological stress but also foster a sense of social belonging and identity through collective activities, thereby mitigating aggressive behavior [13]. Given its inherently combative nature, martial arts have gained popularity as a means of both physical fitness and self-defense.

Previous studies have shown that adolescents practicing martial arts exhibit lower levels of aggression compared to their non-practicing peers [14]. Moreover, research indicates that practitioners of certain martial arts, such as Pszczynska Martial Art, capoeira, and aikido, demonstrate significantly lower aggression levels than athletes engaged in more combat-oriented disciplines like judo, wrestling, fencing, Taekwondo, and Kyokushin karate [15]. Some scholars have explored aggression differences across various martial arts disciplines [16]; however, there remains a notable gap in comparative studies between traditional Chinese MA and other forms of MA, such as Taekwondo and kickboxing.

Thus, this study aims to address a key research question: Do adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA exhibit different levels of aggression compared to those practicing other martial arts?

MA exercise level and aggression

In the field of exercise psychology, researchers have highlighted the positive effects of martial arts (MA) training on mental and psychosocial well-being [17]. Recent studies suggest that insufficient physical activity may contribute to negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors [18]. A longitudinal study found that children engaged in organized sports exhibited fewer internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems [19]. Similarly, Spruit et al. (2016) reported that physical exercise is associated with higher self-esteem, lower depression levels, and fewer behavioral issues [20].

Chinese scholars have further demonstrated that MA practitioners tend to have higher self-control and lower levels of aggression and bullying compared to non-practitioners [14, 15]. Additional evidence indicates that MA training reduces aggression in college students, with longer training durations correlating with lower aggression levels [21]. Furthermore, research suggests that physical activity levels negatively predict aggressive behavior through mechanisms such as self-efficacy and self-control [22].

Given these findings, this study seeks to address a second research question: Does the level of MA exercise negatively predict aggression among adolescent martial arts practitioners (MAP)?

The mediating effect of self-control

Self-control is the ability to regulate and override innate or automatic thoughts and behaviors [23]. Research suggests that physical exercise is positively associated with self-control, with moderate to vigorous exercise enhancing self-regulation strategies among junior high school students [24]. Additionally, physical activity has been shown to improve self-control while reducing problem behaviors such as hyperactivity and inattention in adolescents [25]. According to self-control theory, strengthening self-regulation can effectively suppress aggressive behavior [26], whereas self-control failure is often a predictor of aggression [27]. Moreover, self-control may mitigate aggression in adolescent martial arts practitioners (MAP) by alleviating negative affect [28]. These findings highlight self-control as a crucial factor in aggression regulation.

Furthermore, studies indicate that MA training enhances cognitive function and self-control, thereby reducing behavioral problems associated with low self-regulation [29]. Adolescents who engage in MA practice experience increased self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-control, leading to reductions in externalizing behaviors such as aggression, anger, and violence [30]. Nosanchuk and Macneil (2010) found that MA interventions not only decrease aggressive tendencies but also instill ethical principles and etiquette, fostering self-discipline, cognitive development, and moral awareness [31].

In summary, existing research suggests that MA training may inhibit aggression by enhancing self-control.

The mediating effect of depression

Depression is a prevalent mental disorder characterized by prolonged periods of low mood, loss of interest, or diminished pleasure in activities. According to the World Health Organization (2023), approximately 5% of adults globally suffer from depression, with severe cases often leading to suicide. Each year, over 700,000 people die by suicide, making it the fourth leading cause of death among adolescents aged 15–29 [32]. Consequently, emotional well-being has become a critical focus in the field of public health.

Previous research suggests that aerobic exercise is particularly effective in alleviating adolescent depression [4]. Physical activity can help mitigate psychological distress by inducing physiological changes that reduce stress, anxiety, and depression [20]. Even low levels of exercise (e.g., walking for less than 150 min per week) have been shown to prevent the onset of depression [33], while higher exercise levels are associated with increased positive emotions and lower depression rates [34]. Furthermore, studies indicate that exercise alleviates depressive symptoms through mechanisms such as increased neurotransmitter release and suppression of inflammatory pathways [35].

Aggression is often linked to emotional dysregulation, particularly anger and impulsivity. Adolescents experiencing emotional disturbances, such as depression and anger, are at higher risk for engaging in externalizing behaviors [36]. When individuals struggle to regulate their emotions, they may exhibit heightened aggression as a response to frustration or distress [37]. Chronic exposure to negative emotions increases susceptibility to depression, which, in severe cases, may lead to aggressive or even suicidal tendencies [38]. Yang et al. (2023) found that physical activity interventions significantly reduce aggression in children and adolescents [39], further supporting the role of exercise in improving self-control, alleviating depression, and decreasing aggression.

Research purpose and hypotheses

Building on prior findings, this study aims to examine aggression differences among various MA disciplines and explore the underlying mechanisms linking exercise levels and aggression among adolescent martial arts practitioners (MAP). Based on existing literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1

Adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA have higher exercise levels and lower aggression levels than those practicing other forms of MA.

H2

MA exercise level negatively predicts aggression among MAP adolescents.

H3

Self-control and depression serve as sequential mediators in the relationship between MA exercise level and aggression among MAP adolescents (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1

Hypothesis model

Method

Participants

This study utilized a cluster random sampling method to recruit participants from two full-time martial arts (MA) schools in Chongqing and Xinjiang, China. These schools integrate academic education with specialized martial arts training. A total of 901 questionnaires were distributed.

To ensure data reliability, 54 responses were excluded based on the following criteria: (1) Incomplete responses– 23 questionnaires had missing or unanswered items; (2) Uniform response patterns– 15 surveys displayed identical responses across all items; and (3) Inconsistent responses– 16 participants misinterpreted reverse-phrased items, compromising response validity. After applying these exclusion criteria, 847 valid questionnaires were retained, resulting in an effective response rate of 94%.

A total of 847 valid questionnaires were collected, yielding a 94% response rate, with 427 males and 420 females (mean age = 13.45 years, SD = 1.07). Participants were in 7th grade (351), 8th grade (234), and 9th grade (262). Of the participants, 410 practiced traditional Chinese martial arts (e.g., Changquan, Taichi, Nanquan), and 437 practiced other martial arts (e.g., Taekwondo, kickboxing). All adolescents trained 5 to 6 days per week for at least one hour per day, categorized by exercise intensity as low (374), moderate (291), and high (182). In terms of training duration, 547 participants had less than one year of experience, 121 had 1 to 2 years, 61 had 2 to 3 years, and 118 had more than 3 years of practice. 838 participants were under 16 years old, and written informed consent was obtained from their parents/legal guardians. The study was approved and supervised by the Ethics Review Board of Southwest University, China.

Procedure

Questionnaires were distributed between June 20 and June 27, 2022. The survey was conducted in classrooms with verbal approval from both the schools and the students’ guardians. The study adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Southwest University, Chongqing, China (201930700).

All participants signed an informed consent form to participate in the survey. Participation was entirely voluntary and anonymous to ensure the privacy of the respondents. Before completing the questionnaire, participants were provided with information about the study and data protection. The survey took approximately 20 min to complete, and the completed questionnaires were collected on the spot after students voluntarily filled them out.

Measures

MA exercise level scale

We used the Chinese version of the Physical Activity Ranking Scale to assess the exercise level of MAP adolescents, which was modified by Liang and originally developed by Kimio Hashimoto (1990) [40]. The questionnaire consisted of three items, each rated on a 5-point scale: one item focused on exercise time, another on exercise frequency, and the third on exercise intensity. The exercise level was calculated using the formula: intensity × (time − 1) × frequency, with each index divided into five ranks. The MA exercise level ranged from 0 points (low) to 100 points (high), with higher total scores indicating a higher level of MA exercise. The scale categorized exercise levels into three groups: low exercise level ≤ 19 points, moderate exercise level 20–42 points, and high exercise level ≥ 43 points. The questionnaire’s retest reliability was α = 0.82.

The Self-control scale

We used the Self-control Scale modified by Tan and Guo (2008) and originally developed by Tangney to measure the self-control level of MAP adolescents, with items such as, “I can resist temptation well” [41]. The scale consists of 13 items scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (complete nonconformity) to 5 (complete conformity). To minimize response bias, the scale includes both positive and negative items, with negative items reverse scored. This means that for these items, the numerical scale runs in the opposite direction. In the Self-control Scale, all items were reverse-scored except for items 1 and 11. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for internal consistency was 0.849. A confirmatory factor analysis supported the scale’s one-dimensional structure (CFA): χ²/df = 2.518, SRMR = 0.055, RMSEA = 0.042, GFI = 0.973, CFI = 0.969, IFI = 0.969, NFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.959, indicating good construct validity of the scale.

Depression scale

This study used the Chinese version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, modified by Chen et al. (2019) and originally developed by Radloff (1977), to assess the frequency of depressive symptoms among MAP adolescents in the past week [42]. The scale consists of 20 items measuring depressed emotion, positive emotion, somatic symptoms, and relationship difficulties, with item 4 reverse scored. However, item 4 was deleted due to its correlation coefficient not meeting psychological measurement standards. The final scale consisted of 19 items and was scored on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (fully), with higher total scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale was 0.883. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed: χ²/df = 2.582, SRMR = 0.031, RMSEA = 0.043, GFI = 0.955, CFI = 0.961, IFI = 0.961, NFI = 0.938, TLI = 0.953, indicating that the scale had good construct validity.

Aggression scale

This study adopted the Chinese version of the aggression scale, modified by Liu et al. (2019) and originally developed by Buss and Perry (1992), to assess the level of aggression in MAP adolescents [43]. A representative item is: “I occasionally have an uncontrollable urge to hit someone.” The questionnaire consists of four dimensions: physical aggression, anger, hostility, and alternative aggression. Each item was rated on a scale from 1 (very non-compliant) to 5 (very compliant). A higher total score indicates greater aggression. The item correlation values for this scale ranged from 0.303 to 0.659, and the Cronbach’s alpha for the study sample was 0.907. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed: χ²/df = 1.882, SRMR = 0.055, RMSEA = 0.032, GFI = 0.968, CFI = 0.977, IFI = 0.978, NFI = 0.953, and TLI = 0.971, indicating that the scale had good construct validity.

Data analysis

In this study, descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, common method bias analysis, independent T-tests, Pearson correlation, and regression analysis were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 21.0). All operations were conducted at a significance level of p < 0.05, with a confidence interval level of 95%. Before analyzing the mediating effect, the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) method was used to evaluate the fit indices of the measurement scales using AMOS 21.0 software. We assessed the adequacy of the estimated model using χ²/df, RMSEA, SRMR, GFI, TLI, CFI, IFI, and NFI [44]. A good model fit was defined by a χ²/df value between 1 and 3; TLI, IFI, and NFI values greater than 0.9; GFI and CFI values greater than 0.9; RMSEA values less than 0.05 suggesting a good fit; and SRMR values less than 0.08 representing an acceptable fit [45]. The CFA model for the questionnaire fit well, after which we proceeded with the mediating effects test.

To explore the mediating effects, we first verified the causal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable through multiple linear regression. We then employed PROCESS 4.0, developed by Hayes (2009) [46], a robust tool for assessing indirect pathways in statistical models while controlling for gender, age, school, and different sport types.

All results are reported with standardized regression coefficients. To analyze a more complex mediation process, we used Model 6 within PROCESS 4.0, designed to accommodate a chained mediation model, where multiple mediators are involved in sequence. In both cases, the significance of the mediating effects was rigorously tested using the bias-corrected non-parametric percentile bootstrap method, conducting 5000 bootstrap resamples. Prior to the mediation model analysis, all analysis variables were standardized to ensure comparability and reduce the influence of differing scales.

Results

Testing for common method bias

All scales in this study were collected through self-report, which may have introduced the risk of common method bias. To address this, we followed the common bias analysis procedures proposed by previous studies and controlled for potential bias based on the administration procedures. In terms of procedural control, we focused on maintaining the anonymity of the questionnaire responses and ensuring data protection by increasing the number of reverse-scoring items in the questionnaire to reduce participants’ speculation about the study’s purpose. Regarding statistical control, Harman’s single-factor test was used to assess common method bias [47]. The results showed that the 10 initial eigenvalue factors obtained both without rotation and after rotation were greater than one, accounting for 55.79% of the variance in the original data. The first factor obtained without rotation explained 27.09% of the variance, while the first factor obtained after rotation explained 12.77% of the variance. Since the first factor explained much less than the 40% threshold, this suggests that common method bias was not significant in this study.

Comparison analysis

This study used an independent samples t-test to compare the differences in variables between adolescents engaged in traditional Chinese MA practices and those engaged in other MA practices. As shown in Table 1, the results indicated that adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA had a higher exercise level score (M = 27.78, SD = 22.33) compared to their counterparts in other MA (M = 26.74, SD = 20.26). However, the difference was not statistically significant (t = 0.71, p > 0.05). Additionally, adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA showed a slightly lower aggression score (M = 47.48, SD = 16.04) compared to those practicing other MA (M = 48.47, SD = 17.34), but again, the difference was not significant (t = -0.85, p > 0.05).

Table 1 Comparison analysis between different forms of MA exercise (N = 847)

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

The results presented in Table 2 revealed several significant correlations. First, MA exercise level was positively correlated with self-control (r = 0.210, p < 0.01), indicating that higher exercise levels were associated with greater self-control. MA exercise level was also negatively correlated with both depression (r = -0.145, p < 0.01) and aggression (r = -0.171, p < 0.01), suggesting that higher levels of MA exercise were associated with lower levels of depression and aggression. Furthermore, self-control was negatively correlated with both depression (r = -0.476, p < 0.01) and aggression (r = -0.629, p < 0.01), indicating that greater self-control was linked to lower levels of both depression and aggression. Additionally, depression was positively correlated with aggression (r = 0.559, p < 0.01), highlighting a significant relationship between these two variables. Lastly, gender was negatively associated with MA exercise level (r = -0.176, p < 0.01), suggesting that males and females may differ in their levels of MA exercise.

Table 2 Correlation analysis (N = 847)

Chain mediation test

According to the testing procedure for mediating effects analysis, the study first tested the direct path effect of MA exercise level on aggression, controlling for demographic variables such as gender, age, school, and different sport types. The direct path effect value of MA exercise level on aggression was found to be significant (β = -0.126, p < 0.001), with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of [-0.194, -0.059].

In the subsequent chain mediation modeling, the links among the variables were explored with MA exercise level as the exogenous (independent) variable and aggression as the endogenous (dependent) variable, controlling for gender, age, school, and sport type. As shown in Table 3, the bias-corrected non-parametric percentile bootstrap method revealed a significant chain mediating effect involving self-control and depression, with a mediating effect value of -0.026 and a 95% confidence interval (CI) of [-0.039, -0.015].

However, the pathway mediated solely by depression was not statistically significant, while the pathways mediated only by self-control were statistically significant (see Fig. 2). The pathway mediated by self-control alone explained 68.25% of the total effect, while the pathway mediated by both self-control and depression explained 20.63% of the total effect.

Table 3 Effect test of chain mediation model of Self-control and depression (N = 847)

Fig. 2

The Mediating Model of Self-control and Depression between MA exercise level and Aggression (Standardized coefficient). Note: MA: Martial arts; Statistically significant: ***p < 0.001

Discussion

We found that the differences in exercise level and aggression between different martial arts exercises did not reach statistical significance, but MA exercise level negatively predicted individual aggression, primarily by enhancing self-control and reducing depressed mood, thereby decreasing individual aggressive behaviors. Our findings revealed no significant differences in aggression levels across various MA sports, which challenges the first hypothesis that proposed differential aggression effects. This result aligns with existing research [48]. It may be because MA sports, as part of a high-contact group, are influenced by competitive categories [49, 50], and most modern martial arts are grounded in nonviolence philosophies [51]. Both Traditional Chinese MA and Taekwondo instill moral values during training and competition through the integration of physical and spiritual practice [52].

Another possible explanation is that many MA styles incorporate moral principles and codes of conduct, deeply connected with philosophical, religious, or educational teachings. Combat sports, such as Taekwondo, also emphasize MA etiquette [53]. Furthermore, the cultural context in which MA pedagogy is embedded in our sample is distinct from Western combat sport paradigms. These MA sports are practiced within a Chinese cultural framework that prioritizes the inheritance of “Wu De” (martial morality). “Wu De” serves as a shared cultural principle across global MA practices, suggesting that the cultural attributes of MA—such as “Peace Through Strength” and “Wu De etiquette”—play a significant role in regulating aggressiveness.

Additionally, personality traits may vary significantly across martial arts programs. For instance, fighting sport champions have been found to differ from average athletes in traits like neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness, with champions exhibiting superior personality traits in these dimensions [54]. However, these findings contrast with recent studies [15], which indicated that MA apprentices exhibit a lower level of hostility and aggression compared to combat sports athletes. A comparative study of interviews found higher aggression levels in 30 MMA fighters than in 30 full-contact Oyama Karate fighters [55]. Combat sports with confrontational formats tend to display higher levels of aggression compared to traditional Chinese MA, which is attributed to the technical characteristics inherent in the martial arts programs themselves [16].

Therefore, in the realm of martial arts (MA), the absence of cultural education could foster a tendency towards violence, which is in direct contradiction to the discipline’s core principles. The essence of MA lies not only in combat skills but in a deep moral code that, when adhered to, transforms the practice into a sophisticated interaction between cultural values and the inherent potential for aggression. MA should not be seen merely as a display of physical ability, but as a balance between culture and violence, with aggression being regulated by martial ethics [56]. However, some studies suggest that MA sports tend to exhibit more externalizing behaviors compared to individual sports athletes, potentially due to the aggression levels of the individuals involved [57]. This study focused only on adolescents, which may not fully represent other populations, such as experienced martial artists, highlighting a research gap that could be explored in future studies.

Our findings indicate that self-control partially mediated the relationship between MA exercise level and aggression. In exercise psychology, it is well established that prolonged or regular moderate-to-high-intensity aerobic exercise improves inhibitory control, with greater exercise intensity linked to better self-control [58]. Moreover, the MA exercise level was negatively correlated with aggression, which is consistent with existing studies and supports our second hypothesis [59, 60]. Previous research has shown that self-control influences aggressive behavior—those with lower self-control are more prone to emotional irritability and are more likely to exhibit aggressive or antisocial behavior [61]. Other studies suggest that physical activity enhances social interaction skills, boosts self-control, and increases resilience to frustration, thereby reducing aggression [62]. Individuals who engage in problematic behavior often lack self-control, exhibit low self-awareness, and tend to use physical action to release emotions and stress [63]. This reinforces the idea that MA exercise can improve self-control and, consequently, inhibit aggression [28, 30]. Thus, adolescents who practice MA manage their bodies more effectively, increasing self-control to regulate their behavior.

The results of the simple and chain mediation model confirm the relationship between MA exercise level and aggression, which supports our second hypothesis. MA exercise promotes positive emotions and reduces negative emotions, such as depression and anxiety, leading to increased happiness and well-being [64]. Previous studies have also demonstrated that 60 min of moderate-intensity exercise three times a week for 12 weeks effectively reduces depression [65]. A psychological study of college students suggested that positive emotion regulation strategies can reduce aggression [66]. Therefore, adolescents can alleviate negative emotions, such as anxiety and depression, through MA practice, which also serves to release stress and aggression.

We also found that MA exercise level was associated with aggression through self-control and depression, supporting our third hypothesis and consistent with prior research [28, 67]. Similar results have been reported in earlier studies, showing that appropriate exercise can reduce neuroinflammation and alleviate depression [68]. Moreover, depression, as a predictor of aggression, can be influenced by individual self-control [69]. Therefore, MA exercise may effectively increase self-control, reduce negative emotions, and decrease risky behaviors [70]. As a behavioral control method, MA and combat sports play a critical role in managing anger and aggression by inducing neurotransmitter synthesis, such as serotonin [71].

Based on previous studies, we conclude that MA exercise has a potentially positive impact on aggression, self-control, and other psychological factors influencing behavior. When self-control and depression were used as mediating variables in predicting aggression, we found that self-control fully mediated the relationship between MA exercise level and aggression, while depression did not significantly mediate the relationship. However, both self-control and depression together mediated this relationship in a chain. These findings highlight the crucial role of self-control in reducing aggression.

Although this study explored the mechanisms underlying the influence of MA exercise level on individual aggression, there are still some limitations. First, as a cross-sectional study, it is impossible to infer causality from the findings. Future studies could validate these results through longitudinal or experimental research to better understand the temporal and causal relationships between MA exercise level and aggression. Second, the sample in this study was limited to Chinese adolescents practicing traditional Chinese MA, Taekwondo, and kickboxing. To extend the generalizability of the findings, comparative studies in cross-cultural contexts or surveys of professionally ranked athletes could be conducted in future research. Third, the mediating variables in this study were restricted to self-control and depression. However, the relationship between MA exercise level and aggression may also be influenced by cultural background, which remains an area for further investigation in future studies. Exploring additional mediating factors, such as personality traits or social influences, could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms involved.

Conclusion

Adolescents who engaged in traditional Chinese MA exercise were less likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors compared to their counterparts who practiced other forms of martial arts. The study found that MA exercise level was associated with lower aggression, either through self-control alone or a combination of self-control and depression. By participating in Chinese MA exercise, young people may develop sportsmanship, adhere to rules, and enhance self-control, conflict resolution, and stress management skills, all of which contribute to reducing problem behaviors. Based on these findings, we recommend that schools and educators focus on promoting self-control through MA exercise and martial ethics education. Additionally, such programs can help adolescents better manage and regulate negative emotions, ultimately reducing aggression and preventing issues such as school bullying.