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Self-concept promote subjective well-being through gratitude and prosocial behavior during early adolescence? a longitudinal study

BMC Psychology volume 13, Article number: 356 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Whether and how self-concept link subjective well-being (SWB) among early adolescents is an important issue. This study employs longitudinal method to explore the relationship between self-concept and SWB, as well as the mediating effects of gratitude and prosocial behavior on this relationship in early adolescents. A total of 554 early adolescents completed scales at two waves, with a 10-month interval between two measurements. Results showed that, from the perspective of cross-section, self-concept T1 had an indirect effect on SWB T1 through gratitude T1 and prosocial behavior T1. From the longitudinal perspective, self-concept T1 had an indirect predictive effect on SWB T2 through gratitude at T1 and T2, as well as prosocial behavior at T1 and T2. In a word, self-concept positively predicted SWB indirectly in that they positively predicted gratitude and prosocial behavior. These findings help to enrich existing literature and provide a new scientific insight for effectively enhancing early adolescents’ SWB. Implications and limitations were also discussed.

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Introduction

Subjective well-being (SWB) is an individual’s overall assessment of their quality of life based on their standards, encompassing life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect [1]. Extensive research has established that high SWB is associated with better school functioning [2], improved health assessments [3], and fewer behavioral problems [4]. Early adolescence marks a pivotal developmental stage characterized by rapid physical, cognitive, and social changes, during which adolescents actively explore their identities and societal roles [5]. Previous research indicates a decline in SWB during the transition from childhood to adolescence [6], leading to negative outcomes such as poor academic performance [7], a lack of grit [8], and increased depression [9]. Given the importance of SWB in adolescent development, this study aims to examine the factors affecting early adolescent SWB from both cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives, providing valuable insights for enhancing their well-being.

During early adolescence, significant development in self-awareness occurs, marking a crucial period for self-concept development [10]. Research has identified self-concept as a significant factor influencing adolescent SWB, potentially buffering the decline of SWB [11–12]. Although the relationship between these variables has been explored, analyses often cover the entire adolescence, with limited focus on self-concept development in early adolescence. Moreover, existing studies on the relationship between self-concept and SWB are predominantly cross-sectional, with few longitudinal studies exploring the underly mechanisms between these constructs. According to Social Cognitive Theory, self-concept is formed through social interactions and self-evaluation [13]. A positive self-concept enhances self-efficacy [14], which in turn promotes engagement in positive social behaviors such as gratitude and prosocial behavior. Adolescents with a positive self-concept are more likely to believe that they can have a positive impact on others, thus being more willing to express gratitude and engage in prosocial actions. The Broaden-and-Build Theory further posits that positive emotions like gratitude, can broaden an individual’s thought-action repertoires and build personal resources [15]. When adolescents experience gratitude, they are more likely to engage in prosocial behavior, which helps them build better social relationships. These positive social interactions and relationships contribute to an increase in SWB. Based on these theories, self-concept would have an indirect effect on SWB through gratitude and prosocial behavior. The longitudinal mediation model was chosen to capture the dynamic relationships among these variables over time, as self-concept, gratitude, and prosocial behavior undergo continuous development during adolescence.

Literature review

Relationship between self-concept and SWB

Self-concept is defined as a series of perceptions maintained through personal evaluation and assessment of other significant factors [16]. A positive self-perception helps individuals maintain a healthy self-state, which is crucial for acquiring psychological health and well-being [17]. Individuals with high self-concept often experience life satisfaction and have positive views of themselves, exhibiting traits such as self-identity, self-worth, and self-esteem [18–19], all of which contribute to their sense of well-being. In contrast, those with low self-concept perceive themselves as unworthy and incompetent, displaying self-denial, dissatisfaction, and self-contempt, leading to diminished well-being. Cross-sectional studies have found that self-concept in adolescence is positively correlated with life satisfaction and positive emotions and negatively with negative emotions [20–21]. Notably, longitudinal studies directly exploring the relationship between self-concept and SWB are limited, related constructs such as self-esteem can offer valuable insights. Self-esteem, which is closely related to self-concept, reflects an individual’s overall evaluation of their self-worth [22]. Several longitudinal studies have indicated that self-esteem predicted later SWB (including life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect) during adolescence [23,24,25]. Given the similarities between self-concept and self-esteem, these findings on self-esteem and SWB imply that self-concept may also play a crucial role in predicting SWB over time.

A wealth of research has explored the impact of the individual’s self on well-being and mental health [26–27]. However, two important socially-oriented indicators in adolescents have not received sufficient attention: gratitude, which refers to the positive perception of benefiting from the actions of others [28], and prosocial behavior, which refers to actions taken for the benefit of others [29]. Both gratitude and prosocial behavior play a significant role in the construction of social relationships among adolescents and have a substantial impact on their positive growth. Given that self-concept is self-directed, while gratitude and prosocial behavior are other-oriented, involving interpersonal interaction processes [17, 30], it is worth investigating whether this positive self-cognition can be transformed into positive interactions with others, and whether such positive interactions can further enhance one’s SWB. Therefore, this study will further explore whether self-concept can promote individual SWB by enhancing gratitude and prosocial behavior.

The role of gratitude

Self-concept and gratitude

Gratitude, as a positive emotion with moral and social value, is the psychological tendency to maintain a grateful attitude in the process of understanding and responding to others’ kindness when experiencing positive outcomes [31]. Early adolescents rapidly progress in mutually beneficial interactions and the formation of supportive social relationships, with a sense of gratitude. Existing research suggests that self-concept can enhance interpersonal interactions and social functioning [32–33], thereby conducive to the formation and development of gratitude. Adolescents with a high self-concept are more likely to notice and appreciate the positive aspects of their situation, viewing conflicts and contradictions in interpersonal interactions with a more grateful mindset [34]. Studies have shown that positive and accurate self-perception is positively associated with gratitude [35–36]. Thus, self-concept is positively correlated with gratitude.

Gratitude and SWB

Moreover, extensive research indicates a strong correlation between gratitude and an individual’s well-being [37–38]. Individuals who experience more gratitude tend to engage more actively in their communities, receive more social support, and ultimately achieve higher levels of well-being [39]. Gratitude can buffer stress [40], enhance life satisfaction [41], and foster positive emotions [42]. Therefore, gratitude may play a mediating role between self-concept and prosocial behavior.

The role of prosocial behavior

Self-concept and prosocial behavior

Similar to gratitude, prosocial behavior also plays a significant role in positive interpersonal interactions among adolescents, potentially serving as a bridge between self-concept and SWB. Prosocial behavior refers to actions consciously taken by individuals in social contexts to benefit others. Adolescents are at a crucial stage of social development, with prosocial behavior being a key component of this development [43]. Studies have found that individuals with a positive self-concept maintain a positive attitude towards themselves, considering themselves valuable and taking pride in their life achievements. This positive self-perception and favorable attitude towards society encourage them to exhibit more prosocial behavior, such as helping others, sharing resources, and offering comfort and support [44]. Moreover, individuals with higher self-concept are more likely motivated to exhibit altruistic behaviors, reflecting their internal values and enhancing their positive self-perception.

Prosocial behavior and SWB

Additionally, substantial empirical research indicates that prosocial behavior is positively associated with SWB [45–46]. Prosocial behavior helps individuals establish positive interpersonal relationships, fulfill psychological needs, reduce depression, and thus enhance adolescents’ SWB [47–48]. Therefore, prosocial behavior may mediate between self-concept and SWB.

Gratitude and prosocial behavior

It is important to note the significant link between gratitude and prosocial behavior. According to the moral affect theory of gratitude [28], gratitude acts as a motivator for prosocial behavior, which is a response to gratitude. Gratitude not only spurs beneficiaries to reciprocate kindness received from benefactors but also motivates them to extend generosity to others beyond the original benefactors. Meanwhile, it reinforces the helping behaviors of the benefactors, further inspiring individuals’ prosocial motivations [49]. Numerous empirical studies have also verified the crucial role of gratitude in promoting prosocial behavior [50–51]. For instance, Bono et al. carried out a 4-year longitudinal investigation on adolescents revealing that gratitude in adolescents could evolve over time and had a significant long-term influence on prosocial behavior [50]. Specifically, an increase in gratitude levels was associated with an upward trend in prosocial behavior. Since self-concept is a foundational factor influencing gratitude, these results imply that self-concept may exert a sustained influence on gratitude and prosocial behavior. In turn, this dynamic process can ultimately influence adolescents’ SWB. Another study by Yang et al. conducted a 3-year longitudinal study on Chinese adolescents. Their research found that self-compassion, a construct closely related to self-concept, could promote gratitude and prosocial behavior over this period [34]. This indicates that positive self-related cognitions might have a long-term and positive impact on prosocial tendencies. As early adolescents with a positive self-concept grow, they are more likely to maintain an attitude of gratitude and engage in more prosocial behavior, which may cumulatively enhance their SWB. These longitudinal studies highlight the importance of considering the temporal dimension when exploring the relationships among these variables, providing a more comprehensive understanding of their dynamic interactions. In conclusion, gratitude and prosocial behavior may serve as vital bridges connecting early adolescents’ self-concept with SWB.

The current study

The current study adopts longitudinal approach to examine the relationship between early adolescents’ self-concept and SWB, as well as the mediating effects of gratitude and prosocial behavior. Using temporal separation (i.e., time delay) to measure the main variables, we effectively reduce the bias of common methods [52]. To achieve this, we assessed these variables at two distinct time points. The hypothesized model is presented in Fig. 1. Building on prior research, the following hypotheses were proposed:

Hypothesis 1

Self-concept is positively related to SWB. We further propose that gratitude and prosocial behavior can explain these associations.

Hypothesis 2

Gratitude acts as a separate mediator between self-concept and SWB.

Hypothesis 3

Prosocial behavior acts as an independent mediator between self-concept and SWB.

Hypothesis 4

Gratitude and prosocial behavior exhibit a chain mediating effect between self-concept and SWB.

Supporting evidence for these hypotheses will help to enrich existing literature and scientific basis for effectively enhancing early adolescent SWB from a new insight.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The hypothetical model

Full size image

Methods

Participants

The participants were seventh grade students from a middle school in Beijing, China. Using a longitudinal tracking method, the data was collected at two time points. The first data collection took place in early September 2022 (hereafter referred to as “T1”). A total of 605 students participated in the survey at T1. All the students who participated in T1 were invited to take part in the second data collection in late June 2023 (hereafter referred to as “T2”), with a 10-month interval between the two measurements. Fifty-one participants did not complete the survey at T2t due to irresistible factors such as school transfer, suspension or illness. Data were collected from 554 students at T2, with a retention rate of 91.57%. After removing the missing samples, 554 participants (288 boys, 266 girls) were selected as the final valid sample. Students ranged in age from 10 to 13 years old (M = 12.07, SD = 0.28).

Procedure

This study was conducted through online questionnaires administered at both T1 and T2. Before the first investigation, informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants. Students voluntarily participated in the survey and could withdraw from this survey at any time. Prior to the survey, participants were informed of the purpose of the study and assured that their responses would be kept confidential and used only for this study. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of our university. Students completed questionnaires on demographic variables, self-concept, gratitude, prosocial behavior and SWB at two time points, respectively. The two surveys were conducted in class and students were given 20 min to complete the questionnaire.

Measures

Self-concept

Self-concept was measured using the general self-concept subscale of the Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) [53], which asks participants to rate the degree of conformity between a series of descriptions and their own characteristics, such as “Overall, I have pretty positive feelings about myself.” (positive scoring item), and “Overall, I am not very accepting of myself” (reverse scoring item). The scale contains 12 items, including 6 positively scored items and 6 reverse-scored items. A 5-point Likert scale was used, with 1 representing very inaccurate and 5 representing very accurate. After reversing the reverse scoring items, the mean score of the 12 items acts as a person’s self-concept score, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-concept. In the present study, the Cronbach α coefficients at T1 and T2 were 0.945 and 0.943, respectively.

Gratitude

The gratitude questionnaire compiled by McCullough [54] was used to measure students’ gratitude. It is a 6-item single dimension scale (e.g. “I feel thankful for what I have received in life”), comprising 4 positively scored items and 2 reverse-scored items. A 7-point Likert scale was used, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree. After reversing the reverse scoring items, the mean score of the 6 items acts as a person’s gratitude score, with higher scores indicating higher levels of gratitude tendency. In the present study, the Cronbach α coefficients at T1 and T2 were 0.700 and 0.690, respectively.

Prosocial behavior

Prosocial behavior scale [55] was used to measure adolescents’ prosocial behavior. This scale consists of 15 items and measures four types of prosocial behavior including altruism, commonweal-social rule, relationship, and personal trait. Participants were answered using a 7-point scale, with 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing strongly agree. The mean score of the 15 items was calculated as a person’s prosocial behavior score, with higher scores indicating higher levels of prosocial behavior tendency. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha at T1 and T2 were 0.919 and 0.950, respectively.

Subjective well-being

The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) were used to measure adolescents’ SWB. The PANAS [56] contains 10 items for negative affect (e.g., “annoyed”) and 10 items for positive affect (e.g., “enthusiastic”). Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time), to assess the degree to which the affect has been experienced within a specific time period. The mean scores of the 10 positive affect items and the 10 negative affect items were calculated separately as indicators of an individual’s positive and negative affect, respectively. In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha of positive affect at T1 and T2 were 0.916 and 0.954, and Cronbach’s alpha of negative affect at T1 and T2 were 0.908 and 0.945, respectively.

SWLS [57] was used to measure individuals’ life satisfaction. This scale was a single factor scale and had 5 items (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”). Participants were answered using a 5-point scale, with 1 representing completely disagree and 7 representing completely agree. The mean score of the 5 items acts as a person’s life satisfaction score, with higher scores indicating higher levels of life satisfaction. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha of life satisfaction at T1 and T2 were 0.807 and 0.881, respectively.

Statistical analysis

In this study, SPSS 22.0 was used for descriptive statistics and correlation analyses, while Mplus 8.3 was used to construct structural equation modeling (SEM) for hypothesis testing. Correlation analyses were applied to explore the relationships of self-concept, gratitude, prosocial behavior, and SWB. SEM was conducted to examine the predictive effect of self-concept on SWB and the mediating effect of gratitude and prosocial behavior. Self-concept, gratitude, and prosocial behavior were treated as observed variables, while SWB was modeled as a latent variable, composing three observed indicators: positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction. Full information maximum likelihood is used to handle missing data. Gender and age were used as covariates in the SEM analysis.

To assess the fits of the mediation model, the following fit indices were calculated: Chi-squared/degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df), the root mean square of error of approximation (RMSEA), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). Prior research demonstrated that the criteria for a good data model fit are χ2/df < 5, RMSEA ≤ 0.08, CFI ≥ 0.9, TLI ≥ 0.9, SRMR ≤ 0.08 [58–59].

Results

Descriptive statistical and correlations analysis

Descriptive statistics and correlation analyses for gratitude,ehavior, and SWB indicators at T1 and T2 are displayed in Table 1. Results indicated that all correlations were significant.

Table 1 Means (M), standard deviation (SD), and correlations among variables
Full size table

Mediating effects of gratitude and prosocial behavior

The mediating model showed a good model fit: χ2/df = 3.571, RMSEA = 0.068, CFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.927, and SRMR = 0.042, as presented in Fig. 2. Almost all direct paths were significant, except for self-concept T1 and prosocial behavior T2, as well as gratitude T1 and SWB T2. The results of parameters and 95% CIs of the mediating effects are depicted in Table 2. From the perspective of cross-section, the results showed that self-concept T1 had an indirect effect on SWB T1 through gratitude T1 and prosocial behavior T1. From the perspective of longitudinal cross-section, self-concept T1 had an indirect predictive effect on SWB T2 through gratitude at T1 and T2 and prosocial behavior at T1 and T2. In summary, self-concept positively predicted SWB indirectly in that they positively predicted gratitude and prosocial behavior.

Table 2 Parameters and 95% CIs of the mediating effects
Full size table

Discussion

The current research used both cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs to investigate the relationship between self-concept and SWB, as well as the mediating effects of gratitude and prosocial behavior on this relationship in early adolescents. The results revealed that both direct and indirect pathways from self-concept to SWB were significant, with gratitude and prosocial behavior acting as mediators in early adolescents. The research hypotheses were validated, elucidating the intrinsic mechanism of self-concept on SWB, which is instructive for prevention and intervention of SWB during early adolescence.

Relationship between self-concept and SWB

The present study found that self-concept positively predicted SWB, suggesting that individuals with higher self-concept are more likely to show more SWB later, which is consistent with previous findings [12, 21]. For early adolescents, who are in a crucial stage of self-discovery and understanding their role in society [60], self-concept plays an even more significant role. Positive self-concept provides a stable foundation for them to explore the world around them, enabling them to view themselves as capable and valuable members of society. This, in turn, boosts their confidence in social interactions. For example, when early adolescents with a positive self-concept encounter new social situations, they are more likely to approach them with enthusiasm and a sense of self-assurance, leading to more positive social experiences and ultimately higher SWB. Conversely, those with a negative self-concept may face challenges in establishing their social identity. They might exhibit excessive self-criticism and hesitation in social situations, resulting in missed opportunities for positive social interactions. This can lead to feelings of isolation and reduced SWB. Early adolescents with low self-concept may also be more sensitive to peer rejection, which can further erode their self-esteem and well-being. Self-concept exerts a profound impact on early adolescents’ social experiences and ultimately their SWB. Thus, self-concept predicts SWB.

Mediating role of gratitude and prosocial behavior

These findings highlight that self-concept can consistently influence gratitude and prosocial behavior thereby increasing SWB. During early adolescence, gratitude is not just an emotion but a crucial factor in their social and emotional development [61]. When they experience gratitude, it helps them build and maintain positive relationships with their peers, family, and teachers [50]. Since early adolescents are still learning how to interact effectively with others, gratitude serves as a social lubricant. It allows them to recognize the kindness of others, which in turn encourages them to reciprocate and build stronger social bonds. For instance, an early adolescent who feels grateful for a classmate’s help with schoolwork is more likely to offer help in return, strengthening their friendship and contributing to a positive social environment. Some scholars argue that self-concept positively predicts gratitude [34]. Individuals with a positive self-concept perceive themselves as morally good, capable of integrating into society, and deserving of others’ kindness. Consequently, they are more inclined to recognize and value the assistance and goodwill offered by others, reinforcing a mindset of gratitude and fostering positive social behaviors [35]. On the other hand, gratitude may positively predict SWB, in line with existing findings. Compared to those with high gratitude, those with low gratitude are more likely to feel stress and unable to withstand the negative effects of major life changes [40]. Furthermore, it has also been shown that grateful people will be more willing to build more connections with society, receive more social support [39], fulfill their belonging needs, generate more happiness. In addition, gratitude can increase hope, ultimately resulting in increased SWB. Thus, self-concept can enhance early adolescents’ SWB through gratitude.

Prosocial behavior holds unique significance for early adolescents. Engaging in prosocial activities, such as helping others or participating in community service, provides them with a sense of purpose and belonging. It helps them understand the value of cooperation and empathy, which are essential skills for functioning in society. Through prosocial behavior, early adolescents learn to consider the needs of others, which can enhance their social awareness. For example, when an early adolescent volunteers at a local shelter, they not only help those in need but also gain a sense of accomplishment and cultivate a more positive self-image as helpful members of society. The current results also indicate that prosocial behavior plays a mediating role between self-concept and SWB. The stronger the adolescents’ self-concept, the more prosocial behavior they displayed, which in turn increased their SWB. Individuals who see themselves as valuable contributors are motivated to assist others, even strangers, regardless of personal sacrifice. Self-concept also concerns how individuals perceive and deal with their emotions, and thus individuals with greater emotional regulation may be more attuned to the needs of others and more capable of engaging in prosocial behavior. On the other hand, prosocial behavior can help individuals build positive interpersonal relationships [47–48], promote emotional well-being and academic improvement etc., thus improving adolescents’ SWB. Autonomous prosocial behavior leads to more sustained well-being by satisfying basic psychological needs [43, 62]. Therefore, prosocial behavior plays a mediating role in self-concept and SWB.

The results also demonstrated a chain-mediated relationship between gratitude and prosocial behavior. Previous studies have also shown that growing gratitude foretells a rise in prosocial behavior over a period of 4 years [50]. Discovery-Reminder-Binding Theory suggests that serving an evolutionary function, gratitude may be beneficial to initiate a virtuous relationship-building cycle between recipients and givers, thereby improving integration and cooperation among team members [30, 34]. Moreover, gratitude increases an individual’s sense of meaning of life [63] and makes grateful individuals engage in more prosocial behavior. Thus, gratitude and prosocial behavior play the chain mediating role between self-concept and SWB.

Implications, limitations, and future research

This study offers some significant theoretical and practical contributions. First, this study extends the understanding of the relationships among self-concept, gratitude, prosocial behavior, and SWB to early adolescents (7th graders), filling a gap in research on this younger population. Prior studies often concentrated on older adolescents or adults, leaving the mechanisms of these relationships in early adolescence underexplored. This research validates the significance of these constructs in middle school students, uncovering unique pathways through which self-concept influences SWB via gratitude and prosocial behavior during early adolescence. Second, the present study contributes to the field of positive psychology by providing empirical evidence for the internal mechanisms through which self-concept influences SWB in combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches, and discovering the chain mediating role of “self-concept→gratitude→prosocial behavior→SWB”, which expands the understanding of these variables, and enriches the relevant theories of positive psychology. These results have important implications for understanding adolescent development. In terms of education, educators can use these findings to design more targeted interventions. For example, they can focus on enhancing students’ self-concept by providing positive feedback and opportunities for success. This can be achieved through activities that encourage self-reflection and self-acceptance, such as journaling or group discussions. By strengthening self-concept, educators can potentially promote gratitude and prosocial behavior, which in turn will enhance students’ SWB. Finally, understanding the role of gratitude and prosocial behavior in early adolescents’ well-being can help parents and teachers create a more supportive environment. Educators can model gratitude and prosocial behavior in their daily lives, and encourage early adolescents to express gratitude and engage in helping behaviors. This can have a long-term positive impact on their social and emotional development.

However, it should be noted that this study has some limitations. Future research should aim to address these limitations to further our understanding of adolescent development. First, the sample was a relatively homogeneous population consisting primarily of Chinese students from a single middle school in Beijing which may not be fully representative of early adolescents. Future studies ought to include more diverse samples to enhance the generalizability of findings. Second, although this study collected data over a two time points, future research should observe these changes over more periods of time with full cross-lagged modeling to understand more fully the longer-term trajectories of gratitude and prosocial behavior in relation to self-concept and SWB. Third, owing to early adolescents as this study’s subjects, caution is advised when extrapolating the findings to other age groups. Future studies could target early, middle, or late adolescents to broaden the generalizability of the results.

Fig. 2
figure 2

The mediating model

Full size image

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Funding

This research was supported by the Social Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. 23SHC016 and 23JYC003).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Teacher Education, Ningbo University, No.818 Fenghua Road, Jiangbei District, Ningbo, 315211, China

    Jing Li & Yadong Ding

  2. School of Public Policy and Management, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China

    Yanjiao Li

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  1. Jing Li
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  2. Yanjiao Li
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Contributions

Jing Li and Yadong Ding was responsible for study’s conception and design, and article writing. Jing Li contributed to the theoretical construction, data collection and analysis. Yanjiao Li was responsible for literature search and data analysis. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Yadong Ding.

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All methods were carried out in accordance with the ethical standard of the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participants. This study was approved by the Ethical Committee of China University of Mining and Technology.

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Li, J., Li, Y. & Ding, Y. Self-concept promote subjective well-being through gratitude and prosocial behavior during early adolescence? a longitudinal study. BMC Psychol 13, 356 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02652-w

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BMC Psychology

ISSN: 2050-7283

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