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What affects peer interaction in universities? Examining the effects of paternalistic leadership and peer leadership on peer interaction of teachers

BMC Psychology volume 13, Article number: 306 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Paternalistic leadership is usually adopted by the presidents of universities. Presidents are responsible for the success or failure of the university operations. In addition, they are responsible for policy promotion as well. This thinking model significantly differs from the western democratic view and it is worth discussing. The purpose of this study is to understand how paternalistic leadership (PL) affects peer leadership (PLD) and interactions among faculty members in universities.

Methods

The current study was conducted with the participation of faculty members working in universities in Beijing. In this respect, a total of 320 copies of questionnaire were distributed. After removing the invalid and incomplete ones, 283 copies were found as valid. In the end, 88% of the questionnaires were considered valid. Factor analysis and reliability analysis were performed to test the reliability and validity of the questionnaire. In addition, a structural equation modeling was implemented to test the hypotheses.

Findings

The research results showed that a university leader with balanced benevolence, authoritarianism, and moral leadership can empower a peer leader teacher to exhibit goal oriented behaviors. These behaviors also help the promotion of team harmony. Secondly, a university leader with a paternalistic leadership style can improve PI among professional teachers. Additionally, the leader can make the peer leader establish positive interaction.

Conclusion

The results of the study revealed that a leader in the teacher team with higher PLD characteristics can result in better peer interaction (PI) among teachers. Specific recommendations are provided to address the potential challenges university faculty may face in PIs, particularly in areas they perceive as having a poorer experience. It should be kept in mind that the power formed by university teams cannot be ignored to accomplish important tasks at the university and this power promotes the effectiveness of the university.

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Introduction

A university, as part of society, is influenced by the business environment. Therefore, university management should align with its innovative approach. This enables breaking the traditional static management model. As a result, the university can switch to a dynamic management concept that develops brand new characteristics for management.

Peer interaction (PI) facilitates knowledge sharing and skill development, especially among experienced teachers. It helps them face educational innovation and challenges, thus improves teaching quality [1]. PIs among teachers promote job satisfaction, enhance teacher effectiveness, and increase professional engagement [2]. The role of leadership in PIs shows that informal interactions among teachers can effectively stimulate and expand leadership behaviors, influencing their teaching practices and professional growth [3]. Effective leadership should be conveyed through peer collaboration, a form of interaction particularly impactful in creative fields [4].

A president is responsible for the promotion of university administration [5]. The president plays multiple roles across different eras and contexts, especially in how they shape the university’s soul and academic atmosphere based on their personal traits and the specific needs of the institution. The literature points out that a president’s personality and values can leave a lasting impression on the university’s long-term development, potentially extending beyond their tenure [6]. A president’s paternalistic leadership (PL) can create a stable and supportive environment within the academic community. In such an environment faculty feel a heightened sense of security, thus creative collaboration and PI are promoted [7]. Kerr and Gade [6] suggest that a president is the soul of academic culture, with a leadership style that subtly influences cooperation and interaction among faculty members. Therefore, he becomes more popular as the campus becomes more democratic, and his leadership becomes more important [8]. This type of leadership, especially PL helps establish harmony and a sense of belonging within the university community.

The universal presumption as the leadership research originated from management science in the West has been challenged and questioned by researchers in recent years [9]. Chinese culture is based on the long-standing doctrines of Confucianism; thus, patriarchal governance is emphasized in the country [10, 11]. PL is especially prominent in Asian countries, resonating with cultural values of respect, social harmony, and collaboration, aligning with cultural needs and widely believed to enhance teamwork [12]. PL is usually adopted by the presidents of universities as well. It can be stated that the national culture, local customs, and thinking models are completely different from those in other countries. Therefore, the full application of the Western leadership perspective might not be accepted, and may even result in non-adaptation. Another point is that the practice of this Western leadership style in Eastern society might result in ignoring significant, important, and unique characteristics of Eastern culture [13].

Previous research on leadership has focused on the analysis, introduction, and practice of Western leadership perspectives in Eastern societies; however, the effectiveness of educational leadership in Eastern universities has not been fully tested [14]. Researchers challenged the claim that Western management can work in different cultures as effectively as it works in its original context reminding the saying that “cement in the wrong place is nothing more than dirt” [15]. PL is characterized by clear and powerful authority but it shows high personal conduct by caring and understanding the subordinates [16]. PL is observable with the orders and firm decisions. Other characteristics are benevolence and care, and sacrificing self-interest to introduce various cultural stimuli to students. PL also aims to promote learning outcomes to become the moral role models for younger generations.

Many recent studies on Chinese PL aimed to explore a leadership style with local cultural characteristics. At its core, PL involves leaders who are concerned with the welfare of employees while emphasizing obedience and compliance. This style is often seen as a blend of traditional family ethics and organizational management methods. It is typically divided into three primary dimensions: authoritarianism, benevolence, and morality [17]. Within academic institutions, presidents or academic leaders who adopts PL can foster a sense of belonging and loyalty, contributing to harmony within the academic community [18].

The application of PL in higher education can positively influence PIs. Research suggests that the benevolence and moral components of PL can strengthen emotional connections among teachers, helping them feel cared for and supported, which in turn increases their willingness to collaborate [19]. PL includes the leadership behaviors that meet the expectations of Chinese culture. It is usually applied in Chinese business organizations, where participants are often general employees [20, 21]. However, research on peer leadership (PLD) behavior in the Chinese context is scarce. The exploration of PI still needs more scholarly efforts to develop [22].

At the national level, research on the influence of PL and PLD on teacher interactions has primarily focused on the following areas:

  1. 1.

    Impact of PL on Teacher Behavior: Zhang et al. [23] examined the effects of PL on teachers’ affective commitment and organizational citizenship behaviors in higher education. The findings revealed that benevolent and moral leadership were significantly positively correlated with teachers’ affective commitment. This further promoted collaborative behaviors within teams. However, authoritarian leadership showed no significant impact on teachers’ affective commitment.

  2. 2.

    Leadership Styles and Academic Team Collaboration: Chen and Li [24] studied academic teams in universities and found that the moral dimension of PL significantly enhanced collaboration efficiency and academic output among teachers. Conversely, authoritarian leadership was found to suppress innovation within teams. PLD was shown to be particularly important in small-to-medium-sized academic teams. It facilitates resource sharing and professional development among faculty members.

  3. 3.

    Application and Impact of PLD in Higher Education: Wang [25] explored the effects of PLD on the professional growth of faculty in higher education. The study found that PLD strengthened trust among teachers, promoted knowledge sharing, and improved teaching innovation. PLD was particularly impactful among teachers with similar levels of experience, fostering a culture of healthy competition and collaboration.

Most existing research focuses on general university faculty or multidisciplinary teams, overlooking the unique characteristics of faculty. Therefore, it is safe to claim that a notable gap exists in the literature. Teachers often exhibit distinct teaching methods, professional development needs, and team interaction dynamics. However, previous research has rarely mentioned the role of PLD, its application, and its effects within faculty. This study provides a deeper analysis of PLD. It also examines how PLD fosters collaboration and interaction among faculty in higher education through empirical evidence. Additionally, most prior studies have examined the effects of PL or PLD in isolation. The present study emphasizes the interplay between these two leadership styles and their combined influence on teacher interactions. Therefore, it contributes to a more comprehensive theoretical framework.

This study adopts the theory of Paternalistic Leadership Theory (PLT), framing leaders as “parents” and incorporating three core traits: authority, benevolence, and morality. PL styles are particularly common in Asian cultures, where they provide cultural adaptability and significantly influence member behaviors within an organization, offering a theoretical foundation to understand the impact of PL on teacher interactions in educational settings [8]. This study integrates multiple theoretical frameworks to comprehensively explain the relationships among PL, PLD, and PI within the context of higher education, particularly among faculty. These frameworks provide a solid foundation for understanding the mechanisms by which leadership styles influence interpersonal dynamics among educators.

  1. 1.

    PLT: PLT serves as a framework for analyzing how various dimensions of leadership—authority, benevolence, and morality—impact interpersonal trust, emotional attachment, and collaboration among faculty. These faculty members often characterized by a strong sense of autonomy and individuality, which makes this theory especially relevant.

  2. 2.

    Social Exchange Theory (SET): By incorporating SET, this study examines how leadership styles promote positive PIs through reciprocal exchanges. For instance, the support from benevolent leaders may encourage teachers to reciprocate through collaborative behavior with colleagues.

  3. 3.

    Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX): LMX theory is applied to evaluate how variations in leaders’ interactions with individual faculty members influence peer dynamics. It emphasizes the creation of an inclusive and collaborative environment that fosters stronger interpersonal connections among teachers.

  4. 4.

    Self-Determination Theory (SDT): SDT helps explain how PLD characterized by shared decision-making and mutual support fulfills teachers’ intrinsic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This, in turn, enhances positive PIs and fosters professional growth.

  5. 5.

    Social Identity Theory (SIT): SIT is the basis for examining how a shared identity among faculty cultivates a sense of belonging and collective purpose. This shared identity encourages cooperative behaviors and strengthens PIs.

  6. 6.

    Organizational Climate Theory: In the context of this study, Organizational Climate Theory explains how PL and PLD styles contribute to fostering an environment conducive to collaboration and knowledge sharing among faculty.

The integration of these theories provides a multidimensional framework for understanding how leadership styles shape PIs. This approach not only bridges gaps in the existing literature but also offers valuable insights into fostering collaboration and innovation among educators.

Therefore, it is necessary to further discuss scholars’ views on PL in relation to the current situation of local schools. Leadership styles should also be consistent with local conditions, such as the context of a country and people’s mindset. PL and PLD styles in universities were discussed from the perspective of PIs among teachers. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of PL and PLD on PIs among faculty in university departments. The research hypothesizes that through a supportive environment, PL effectively promotes mutual assistance and collaboration among faculty. It enhances academic innovation and educational quality. This study fills the research gap concerning PLD behavior and the impact of PL on PI among university faculty. The contributions of this study are as follows: 1. Expanding the Application of PL Theory in Education: This study investigates the applicability of different dimensions of PL within the context of faculty, particularly its impact on PIs. In this way, it extends the theoretical understanding of paternalistic leadership in the unique environment of education. 2. Enhancing the Empirical Foundation of PLD Theory: Research focuses on how PLD fosters professional development and collaboration among teachers, offering evidence-based insights. This contribution provides practical guidance for university administrators seeking to implement effective leadership strategies. 3. Deepening Research on Management Practices in Education: By addressing the specific characteristics of faculty, this study suggests effective strategies to promote teacher collaboration and interaction. These findings serve as valuable references for managing academic teams and enhancing cooperative dynamics within education. This study is expected to help university leaders with personal charisma to guide teachers’ professional growth and acknowledge the power formed by school teams to accomplish important tasks in a school.

Review of literature

Paternalistic leadership

According to Chang et al. [26], the core beliefs and values of the Chinese people are derived from traditional Confucianism, Taoism, legalistic philosophy, and the country’s three-thousand-year-old monarchy. This mindset developed a leadership style that integrates Confucianism, and family values [27, 28]. This new leadership style is different from that of the West and it is called “paternalistic leadership” [29, 30]. The research discovered that supervisors or leaders in Chinese enterprises exhibited distinctive leadership and management characteristics. In other words, a leader displays a “patriarchal” leadership style, which can be understood as clear and definite authority. However, this leadership style also includes “care”, “understanding”, and “moral values” [31, 32].

Peer leadership

A leader approaches his subordinates with benevolence, authoritarianism, and morality. This is a brand-new leadership theory that matched Eastern and Chinese characteristics. Liu et al. [33] considered athlete leadership in a team as the ability to show functions that a formal leader lacks. Henkel et al. [34] indicated that a coach believes in the effects of athlete leadership on team efficiency and performance. Leo et al. [35] suggested that a coach needs one or two athletes to provide motivation and guidance for teammates. They stated that PLD had an important role. Apparently, people had only a limited understanding of PLD compared to traditional coach leadership in which athletes has more direct and frequent interaction on the field than with a coach.

Peer interaction

Bai et al. [36] divided team cohesion into social cohesion and work cohesion. “Social cohesion” indicates that team members are friendly, like each other, and they accept each other as a team member. This definition corresponds to the positive relationship in PI (an individual’s ability to cooperate with peers, willingness to share ideas or feelings, and accepting and identifying with peers to develop a sense of belonging). Team members who encounter problems or conflicts can solve the problems collaboratively through social support and care among teammates. Lee et al. [37] indicated that trust leads to positive intrinsic responses such as hope, reliability, and positive feelings against others’ attitudes or behaviors. On the other hand, distrust can lead to negative psychological characteristics such as caution, fear, and vigilance against others. The word trust means positive relationship in PI.

Influence of paternalistic leadership on peer leadership

McEwan [38] indicated that roles and functions among peers can affect team operation and atmosphere. In a study on paternalistic leadership and PLD, Amado et al. [39] found that the peer leader can display task leadership, social leadership, external leadership, and personal talent better when athletes in a team perceive the coach’s benevolent and moral leadership styles as well [40, 41]. This finding revealed that there is a correlation between paternalistic leadership and PLD. Luo et al. [42] pointed out that the critical factor in coach leadership in order to change athletes’ or team’s performance is that the coach’s and peer leader’s behaviors can affect each other [43]. However, a coach has a greater influence on the team than the peer leader.

Paternalistic leadership has characteristics that encourage collaboration among peers, especially in organizations that emphasize interpersonal relationships and social harmony. A leader’s benevolent qualities foster a sense of support and trust among subordinates, motivating them to participate actively in PIs. This environment strengthens employees’ emotional bonds and team cohesion, which helps to facilitate effective PLD [44]. Leaders’ emotional support and care for subordinates help to create a safe and harmonious organizational atmosphere. This, in turn, encourages active peer support and mutual learning, both of which are crucial for the formation and development of PLD [45]. For this reason, the following hypothesis can be proposed in this study. Paternalistic leadership has significant positive effects on peer leadership (H1).

Influence of peer leadership on peer interaction

Lu et al. [46] estimated that PLD with social support can result in more positive relationship among teammates. Cao et al. [47] stated that athletic ability is an important factor in peer relationships. They added that in order to be accepted by peers, children needed other children’s approval. This corresponded to personal talent in PLD (the peer leader’s ability to display good sports technology, calmness, higher resistance to stress, and having more concentration on the game than teammates). Chai et al. [48] also pointed out athletic ability as a major factor, and teenagers who have higher athletic ability were more popular. Sariwulan et al. [49] revealed a high correlation between children’s perceived athletic ability and their successful peer relationships. Research also proved a positive correlation between perceived athletic ability and peer relationships [50]. It can be inferred that personal talent might be an important factor in peer relationships.

PLD motivates and guides colleagues to participate more actively in team activities. Studies show that when employees assume PLD roles, they tend to share knowledge more willingly and assist other members [51]. This significantly enhances team cohesion and member interaction [51]. Carson et al. [52] found that as the number of team members with PLD abilities increases, overall trust and support within the team rise, facilitating an efficient cooperative environment. Research indicates that PLD effectively boosts trust among team members, making them more willing to support each other in interactions. This in turn increases team job satisfaction and performance. In addition, Ensley et al. [53] found that PLD facilitates idea and creativity sharing, supporting innovation and problem-solving in the team as well as smoothing team communication. Accordingly, the following hypothesis can be developed in this study. Peer leadership shows significant positive effects on peer interaction (H2).

Influence of paternalistic leadership on peer interaction

According to the description of paternalistic leadership and the triad model [54], subordinates respond to the consideration and care of the benevolent leader by conforming to the leader’s expectations and working hard. In this respect, it can be stated that benevolent leadership showed positive correlations with subordinates’ trust in the supervisor [55]. Honesty, being responsible, and avoiding exploitation of the subordinates are the models of moral leadership in which subordinates identify and imitate the leader’s reactions [56,57,58]. In this vein, moral leadership is similar to benevolent leadership and has a positive correlation with subordinates’ trust in the supervisor [59]. Admiration and monopoly in authoritarian leadership lead subordinates to spend effort to keep the distance between themselves and their leaders [60, 61]. In this respect, authoritarian leadership might have a negative correlation with subordinates’ trust in the supervisor.

In their study on paternalistic leadership and leadership trust, Davis et al. [62] found out positive effects of benevolent leadership and moral leadership on trust in coaching [63]. On the other hand, in their study with elementary school students, Li et al. [64] discovered that authoritarianism, benevolence, and morality in paternalistic leadership, can build good peer relationships between athletes. It was also revealed that a coach’s strict correction, care, understanding, and making oneself an example can contribute to the soundness of peer relationships [65]. However, scolding, strict punishment and excessive rebuke by the coach results in poor PI. Children who observe a coach’s dominant behavior may experience conflicts with their peers or may attack them.

The benevolent traits of paternalistic leadership enhance employees’ emotional commitment to the organization [66]. As a result of this teamwork and mutual support among colleagues is strengthened [66]. Research indicates that paternalistic leadership increases subordinates’ trust and psychological safety, encouraging knowledge sharing and interactive communication, which further supports PLD [45]. Benevolent traits in paternalistic leadership make subordinates feel supported and cared for. They also foster knowledge sharing and collaboration among them. Such cooperative behavior plays an essential role in promoting PLD, particularly in environments that require continuous innovation and learning [67]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis can be proposed in this study. Paternalistic leadership has significant positive effects on peer interaction (H3).

Peer leadership mediates the effect of paternalistic leadership on peer interaction

PL is characterized by a combination of authority, benevolence, and moral integrity. It has been shown to significantly impact teachers’ interactions within educational institutions. This leadership style fosters a supportive environment that enhances trust and collaboration among teachers. For instance, a study by Kavgacı [68] explored the relationships among principals’ paternalistic leadership, teachers’ trust in the principal, work engagement, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The findings indicated that trust in the principal significantly moderated the effect of paternalistic leadership on teachers’ organizational citizenship behaviors. In addition, work engagement acted as a mediator. This suggests that when teachers perceive their leaders as paternalistic, it enhances their engagement and willingness to go beyond their formal duties, thereby promoting positive PIs.

PLD emerges as a crucial intermediary in the relationship between PL and PIs. When leaders exhibit paternalistic qualities, they often inspire similar behaviors among teachers. Then, teachers take on PLD roles. This cascading effect promotes a culture of mutual support and collaboration. A study by Li et al. [69] examined the relationship between paternalistic leadership, trust in the principal, and teachers’ job satisfaction and commitment to students. The results showed that moral leadership positively affected trust in the principal. As a result, this enhanced job satisfaction and commitment. Although the study did not directly address PLD, the findings imply that supportive leadership at the top can foster a trusting environment. This encouraged teachers to adopt leadership roles among their peers. In the context of faculties, where individual creativity and collaboration are both essential, the interplay between paternalistic leadership and PLD can significantly influence PIs. A thematic analysis conducted in a Chinese college of fine arts revealed that the dean’s integrated leadership approach fostered positive creative collaboration among teachers. This suggests that leadership styles that combine authoritative and supportive elements can create an environment conducive to peer-led initiatives and collaborative efforts [70]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis can be proposed in this study. Peer leadership has a mediating effect on the impact of paternalistic leadership on peer interaction (H4).

Conceptual framework of this study

This study adopts the theory of paternalistic leadership, viewing leaders as “parents,” and incorporates three core attributes: authority, benevolence, and morality [26]. Based on the above literature review, a conceptual framework was drafted for this study (Fig. 1) to discuss the relationships among paternalistic leadership, PLD, and PI.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual framework

Full size image

This study investigates the relationship between PL, PLD, and PIs among faculty in universities. To establish a strong theoretical foundation and clarify the relationships between these variables, this study integrates multiple theories: Paternalistic Leadership Theory, Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory, and Social Identity Theory.

  1. 1.

    Paternalistic Leadership Theory: Paternalistic leadership, as conceptualized, is characterized by authority, benevolence, and morality. These dimensions of PL are hypothesized to foster trust and cohesion among faculty members, laying the groundwork for effective PIs.

  2. 2.

    Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: LMX theory emphasizes the quality of relationships between leaders and subordinates. It points out that high-quality exchanges result in greater collaboration and mutual respect. Within this framework, paternalistic leaders, through individualized support and clear moral guidance, elevate the LMX quality. In addition, it fosters the environments for PLD emergence. This PLD, in turn, acts as a bridge by means of facilitating stronger and more collaborative interactions among faculty.

  3. 3.

    Social Identity Theory: Social identity theory, highlights the role of group membership in shaping individual behaviors and attitudes. In academic settings, a paternalistic leader’s ability to establish a shared group identity among faculty members encourages collective belongingness and cooperation. PLD amplifies this effect by reinforcing the shared identity through lateral support and influence. This ultimately enhances PIs.

  4. 4.

    The Mediating Role of Peer Leadership: PLD is conceptualized as a mediator between paternalistic leadership and PIs. Drawing on Transformational Leadership Theory, peer leaders mirror the supportive and moral behaviors modeled by paternalistic leaders. In this way, they inspire their peers to collaborate and exchange ideas. This cascading effect demonstrates how leadership at the hierarchical level impacts horizontal relationships. They foster a collegial and synergistic academic environment.

Enhancements to the framework

  1. 1.

    Integrative Perspective: The use of multiple theories (e.g., LMX and Social Identity) provides a more robust explanation of the dynamics between the variables.

  2. 2.

    Mechanisms of Influence: Detailing how PL traits translate into PIs as PLD bridges the theoretical gap.

  3. 3.

    Cultural Context: Including cultural considerations highlights the relevance and adaptability of these theories in different settings, such as faculties in collectivist societies.

Methods

Participants and procedure

The current study was conducted with the participation of faculty members working in universities in Beijing. The questionnaire survey was implemented in May–June, 2022. In the implementation process, a total of 320 copies of the questionnaire were distributed. After removing the invalid and incomplete ones, 283 copies were found as valid. In the end, 88% of the questionnaires were considered valid. The sample structure for this study includes:

  1. 1.

    Gender: 146 males (52%) and 137 females (48%).

  2. 2.

    Teaching experience: Less than 10 years (68 people, 24%), 11–20 years (113 people, 40%), more than 20 years (102 people, 36%).

  3. 3.

    Academic rank: Professors (66 people, 23%), Associate Professors (127 people, 45%), Lecturers (90 people, 32%).

    Employment status: Teaching staff within the university (232 people, 82%) and teaching staff outside the university (51 people, 18%).

Instruments

Operational definition

  1. (1)

    Paternalistic leadership

Hou et al. [71] state that the PL scale contains the following dimensions.

  1. 1.

    Authoritarianism: This dimension emphasizes a leader’s personal authority and dominance on subordinates which leads to subordinates’ obedience, admiration, and shyness behaviors against the leader.

  2. 2.

    Benevolence: Benevolent leadership can be considered as the individual care and maintenance of subordinates’ reputation.

  3. 3.

    Morality: A leader’s morality of conduct covers various virtues, particularly, devotion without favoritism (not abusing power, making private benefits, or embezzling other’s profits), and making oneself an example. This results in subordinates’ identifying and imitating the leader’s behavior.

Hou et al. [71] state that the PL scale contains the following dimensions: authoritarianism (5 items), benevolence (3 items), and morality (8 items). This questionnaire uses a five-point Likert scale, where 5 indicates “strongly agree” and 1 indicates “strongly disagree.”

  1. 1.

    Authoritarianism: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “When I perform poorly, the leader scolds me with a stern expression.”

    2. B.

      “When I fail to complete my task, the leader reprimands me harshly.”

  2. 2.

    Benevolence: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “When I make a mistake, the leader gives me an opportunity to correct it.”

    2. B.

      “When I encounter a bottleneck and struggle to progress, the leader encourages me.”

  3. 3.

    Morality: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “The leader shows concern for my personal life.”

    2. B.

      “The leader leads by example.”

  1. (2)

    Peer leadership

According to Li et al. [72] the PLD scale has the following dimensions as task leadership, social leadership, external leadership, and personal talent.

  1. 1.

    Task leadership: This dimension refers to a peer leader’s ambition to achieve the team objective, request of team discipline, participation in decision-making, and guiding team members.

  2. 2.

    Social leadership: This dimension refers to a peer leader’s being friendly, supportive, encouraging, and caring towards teammates.

  3. 3.

    External leadership: This dimension refers to a peer leader’s ability to deal with various team-related issues such as arranging games, preventing the team from being interfered with by external factors, and smoothly operating the team.

  4. 4.

    Personal talent: This dimension refers to a peer leader’s having a good background in terms of sports and technology, being calm, having higher stress resistance, and having a higher concentration on games than teammates.

Accordingly, task leadership (6 items), social leadership (6 items), external leadership (4 items), and personal talent (6 items) were assessed. This questionnaire was designed as a five-point Likert scale, where 5 indicates “strongly agree” and 1 indicates “strongly disagree.”

  1. 1.

    Task leadership: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “The peer leader in my unit is approachable”

    2. B.

      “The peer leader in my unit respects colleagues’ ideas.”

  2. 2.

    Social leadership: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “The peer leader in my unit is approachable.”

    2. B.

      “The peer leader in my unit respects colleagues’ ideas.”

  3. 3.

    External leadership: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “The peer leader in my unit organizes work-related matters.”

    2. B.

      “The peer leader in my unit efficiently handles tasks assigned by leadership.”

  4. 4.

    Personal talent: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      The peer leader in my unit demonstrates superior task performance.”

    2. B.

      The peer leader in my unit shows good judgment in tasks.”

  1. (3)

    Peer interaction

Along with Ruan and Liu’s [73] study, the PI scale used in this study covers the “positive relationship” and “negative relationship” dimensions.

  1. 1.

    Positive relationship: This dimension refers to cooperative and prosocial behavior, joint activity, trust, respect, closeness, and attachment.

  2. 2.

    Negative relationship: This dimension includes dominance and instigation, conflict and attack, competition and envy, and hostility and defense.

The positive peer relationship section has 20 items, while the negative peer relationship section also has 20 items. Positive peer relationships assess cooperation/prosaically behavior, play/joint activities, trust/respect, and closeness/attachment. Negative peer relationships cover dominance/commanding, conflict/aggression, competition/jealousy, and hostility/defensiveness. A five-point Likert scale was used in this questionnaire, where 5 indicates “strongly agree” and 1 indicates “strongly disagree.”

  1. 1.

    Positive relationship: Items include statements such as:

    1. A.

      “I help colleagues solve

    2. B.

      “I can trust my colleagues, and they can trust me.”

  2. 2.

    Negative relationship: Items include statements such as:

    1. A

      “I demand my colleagues to do tasks for me”.

    2. B

      “I am prone to getting into physical conflicts with colleagues.

Analytical methods

Structural equation modeling, which is one of the quantitative data analysis methods, was used to analyze and understand the relationships among PL, PLD, and PI. Quantitative research focuses on inferring and building a generalizable rule from accurate and objective measurement results [74]; therefore, it is concerned with the reliability and generalizability of research results. Quantitative research is suitable for descriptive questions, correlation problems, and causality questions [75]. Accordingly, it can be stated that it matches the purpose of this study. Besides, survey results can easily be quantified. A questionnaire survey is a structured survey that is fixed in terms of expressions (questionnaire items), order of the items, and answering style and method. It is based on a kind of text exchange. Therefore, it is extremely resistant to subjective bias by anyone including researchers or surveyors. The statistical results can generally be quantified [76]. Accordingly, the quantitative research method was adopted in this study, and a questionnaire survey was used as the data collection method.

Factor analysis and reliability analysis were used to test the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, and structural equation modeling was implemented to test the hypotheses. Structural equation modeling, which has reached its maturity in 1980s, is considered as a good method for social science research [77]. In the fields of social sciences such as economics, marketing, and management, it is sometimes necessary to deal with multiple factors and multiple results, or variables which cannot be directly observed (i.e., latent variables) [78]. These difficulties could not be overcome with traditional statistics. Therefore, structural equation modeling has rapidly developed since 1980s to compensate for the inefficiency of traditional statistics and became an important tool to analyze multiple data. Structural equation modeling was therefore implemented in this study to test the hypotheses. The structural equation modeling (SEM) consists of two parts. First, the measurement model aims to understand the structure under each latent variable that is consistent with the theoretical expectation, which is analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Secondly, the structural model addresses the complicated causal path relationships among variables in the scientific theory of a specific behavior proposed by researchers, this is called path analysis (PA). PA aims to test the relationships between latent variables and manifest variables (also called observed variables), as well as the cause-and-effect relationship among multiple latent variables.

Factor analysis

Reliability and validity analyses were conducted to understand the reliability and validity of the questionnaire used in this study. With factor analysis, the correlation among items and the interaction among variables were used to judge the validity of variables. The higher Cronbach’s α reveals the better reliability. The measured Cronbach’s α in this study was found between 0.75 and 0.90, which conforms to the acceptable reliability range. Through factor analysis, the paternalistic leadership scale revealed a three-factor structure which are “authoritarianism” (eigenvalue = 3.588, α = 0.87), “benevolence” (eigenvalue = 2.473, α = 0.88), and “morality” (eigenvalue = 2.015, α = 0.90). The cumulative covariance explained achieved 75.683%. The PLD scale was analyzed through factor analysis and four factors were extracted. These factors are “task leadership” (eigenvalue = 2.781, α = 0.86), “social leadership” (eigenvalue = 2.362, α = 0.84), “external leadership” (eigenvalue = 1.894, α = 0.82), and “personal talent” (eigenvalue = 1.623, α = 0.83). The cumulative covariance explained reached 73.461%. The PI scale was analyzed through factor analysis and two factors were extracted as “positive relationship” (eigenvalue = 4.365, α = 0.91) and “negative relationship” (eigenvalue = 3.287, α = 0.90). The cumulative covariance explained achieved 83.755%.

Data analysis

Theoretical model discussion

In this study, PL, PLD, and PI were tested for overall structural cause-effect with Linear Structural Relations Model. The data entry was based on the correlation matrix of the observed variables above. The Linear Structural Relations Model analysis results revealed that the overall model fit reached the reasonable range. This indicates a favorable convergent validity and predictive validity. In this study, item-to-total correlation coefficient was utilized to test the construct validity of the questionnaire content, and the calculated item-to-total correlation coefficient was used to judge the questionnaire content. The item-to-total correlation coefficients of dimensions in this study were found higher than 0.6. This revealed a certain degree of construct validity of the dimensions in the questionnaire. Figure 2 shows the overall research result, which indicates that the path coefficients of the variables reached convergent validity. Convergent validity is the basic requirement for an analysis model. The model fit indices were found as GFI = 0.983, AGFI = 0.936, RMSEA = 0.06, and CFI = 0.957. These results verified the model fit and showed that this model conforms to the theory and is valid.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Path diagram

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Hypotheses testing

For nested models, chi-square test of difference was used to test research hypotheses as each nested model shows the difference of a degree of freedom. The difference of chi-square between nested model and theoretical model was found significant. This revealed that the path coefficient set to 0 was significant. Byrne [73] stated that A p-value less than 0.05 indicates that, at a 95% confidence level. The observed results are unlikely to be random. This result not only proves the validity of the hypotheses but also provides support for theory and practice. For example, if A’s influence on B is significant, it suggests that researchers should emphasize A’s role in practice and may need to intervene or strengthen its influence. Setting non-significant path coefficients to 0 helps simplify the model and focus on important dependent variables. In this respect, the model’s explanatory power and predictive capability are enhanced. This is also part of model optimization, which helps researchers better understand the relationships among variables and further validate theoretical hypotheses. The setting of path coefficients to 0 is an important method for examining causal relationships and model fit in structural equation modeling. Through chi-square difference testing, researchers can clearly identify the significant relationships among variables, through in-depth analysis and application in both theory and practice. A p-value less than 0.05 emphasizes the importance of these paths, enhancing the reliability and validity of the research. The research results revealed that the model was significant. The nested model analysis result is shown in Table 1, and the hypothesis test results are displayed in Table 2. Table 3 shows the hypothesis testing results of Model 1(Δχ2 = 4.18*), Model 2 (Δχ2 = 3.87*), Model 3 (Δχ2 = 5.26*), and Model 4 (Δχ2 = 6.18*). It can be figured out that the results are significant.

Table 1 Factor analysis
Full size table
Table 2 Hypothesis test
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Table 3 Nested model analysis
Full size table

Discussion

When a university leader adopts paternalistic leadership, the effects of benevolence, morality, and authoritarianism can improve PLD [79]. The previous research revealed similar results by Liu et al. [33] and Leo et al. [35]. They also found out that paternalistic leadership has remarkable and positive correlations with PLD. A leader shows the ambition to achieve the team goals and assists in decision making and guiding professional teachers. A university leader who exhibits convincing professional ability or higher personal value can indirectly affect the peer leader to lead teachers to achieve tasks [80]. A social leader displays the behavior of caring and encouraging teachers. The previous research by Cao et al. [47] and Chai et al. [48] also revealed similar findings. In addition, the peer leader seeks for leadership styles that is suitable for the team.

An external leader is a peer leader who deals with team affairs for the smooth operation of the team without being affected by external factors [81]. Besides, the previous research revealed similar findings. It was found out that children’s PI experienced in the exercise process affected their social adjustment, self-perception, self-evaluation, emotional response, achievement, and behavior [27, 50]. It might be the influence of the university leader’s devotion to teacher related affairs for the smooth operation at the university. Personal aptitude shows that a peer leader is able to use high technology and show high stress resistance to break through the technology and mindset through strict training and firm arrangement [82]. The research results also revealed that a peer leader with these characteristics will develop a sense of belonging in the team. Similarly, the willingness to help and cooperate with each other among teachers is important in order to exhibit altruistic behavior and this also depends on the peer leader’s leadership style [83]. If the peer leader shows the ambition to achieve team objectives, he can direct fellow teachers to perceive the diligence and feel the support to achieve their objectives.

Research strengths

The present study has several strengths. The questionnaire survey was implemented for the study at the same time as data collection and analyses. This might bring about the doubt of common method variance (CMV). Nevertheless, reverse coding design was used for the questionnaire design to avoid common method biases. This study effectively fills the research gap concerning PLD behavior and the impact of PL on PI among university faculty.

Suggestions for policy and practice

The following suggestions can be proposed in response to the challenges that university teachers may face in PI and to provide specific suggestions for areas they feel are less experienced:

  1. 1.

    Establish a supportive environment: University leaders should be committed to creating a supportive teaching environment that encourages interaction and collaboration among teachers. Studies have shown that regular seminars, workshops, and social events can strengthen mutual understanding among faculty members, as well as leads to higher levels of collaboration and job satisfaction [9]. This can be achieved through regular teacher seminars, workshops, and social events to promote mutual understanding and support among teachers.

  2. 2.

    Implement a peer mentoring system: Peer mentoring has been recognized as an effective tool for fostering teacher development and promoting collaborative interactions. Mentoring programs help new teachers adapt, share best practices, and build collegial relationships, as supported by research in organizational behaviors [84]. Introduce a peer mentoring system that allows experienced teachers to mentor new teachers. This not only aids the adaptation of new teachers but also promotes the exchange and sharing of experiences.

  3. 3.

    Enhance communication channels: Effective communication channels are critical for fostering an open and collaborative workplace. Anonymous surveys have been used successfully in educational settings to gather feedback and improve policies, as demonstrated in higher education leadership studies [85]. Regular anonymous surveys could be considered to gather teachers’ opinions. In this way effective communication channels that allow teachers to freely express their views can be established. Suggestions regarding the work environment, teaching strategies, and administrative policies can be proposed through these communication channels.

  4. 4.

    Provide professional development opportunities: Professional development (PD) enhances teaching quality and encourages innovative approaches. Studies have highlighted the role of continuous training in improving teacher efficacy and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration [86]. The number of PD courses and training specifically for teachers can be increased. Particularly in the areas such as teaching methods, creative teaching, and interdisciplinary collaboration PD activities can be organized. Encourage teachers to participate in external workshops and conferences to exchange ideas with peers.

  5. 5.

    Promote teamwork projects: Teamwork projects and interdisciplinary collaboration have been linked to enhanced creativity and communication among teachers. Collaborative teaching approaches improve knowledge sharing and break down communication barriers, fostering better PIs [87]. Teachers should be encouraged to engage in interdisciplinary collaborative projects. These can be enabled by directing them to conduct teaching activities or research with teachers from other disciplines. This can broaden perspectives and facilitate communication and interaction between different fields.

  6. 6.

    Emphasize the practice of paternalistic leadership: PL, has been shown to enhance trust and cohesion among employees. In academic settings, such leadership styles foster supportive environments and stronger peer relationships [8]. The university management should strengthen the practice of paternalistic leadership styles, particularly regarding benevolence, virtue, and care. Through exemplary behaviors, teachers can feel supported and cared for.

  7. 7.

    Establish evaluation and feedback mechanisms: Transparent evaluation systems improve trust and encourage positive behaviors, including PIs. Feedback mechanisms that include PIs as part of evaluations ensure that collaboration and collegiality are valued within the organization [88]. A transparent teacher evaluation system should be created and substantial feedback should be provided.

Conclusion

The research results revealed positive effects of PL on PLD. It was found out that higher moral leadership and benevolent leadership in PL can lead to a higher PLD. Therefore, H1 in this study which is “Paternalistic leadership has significant and positive effects on peer leadership” was supported. It was revealed that a university leader with proper benevolent, authoritarian, and moral leadership styles helps the peer leader teachers to achieve team objectives and promote team harmony.

PL shows positive effects on PI. This revealed that a university leader who leads teachers with proper PL can improve PI among teachers. Accordingly, it was concluded that the H2, “Peer leadership shows significant and positive effects on peer interaction” was supported in this study. PLD showed positive effects on PI. This refers that a leader in a teachers’ team who performs better PLD leads to improved PI among teachers. As a result, H3 which is “Paternalistic leadership has significant and positive effects on peer interaction.” was supported. The relationship among peers in a professional team is multi-layered and complicated. A university leader in a team who exhibits benevolent and moral leadership styles can lead to positive interactions among peers in a team. H4 was also supported, underscoring an additional significant positive path—[insert specific relationship or construct labels here if H4 relates to different variables]—thereby reinforcing the overall effectiveness of PL approaches in enhancing team dynamics.

These results collectively demonstrate that PL, when characterized by benevolent, moral, and fair authoritarian practices, can strengthen both PLD and PI. By recognizing the significant pathways in this model, university administrations and policy makers can design leadership development programs aimed at cultivating the dimensions of PL that most effectively foster PLD behaviors and collaborative teacher PI.

Research limitations

Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations that future research should address:

  1. 1.

    Sample Size and Geographic Limitation: The study was conducted only among university faculty members in Beijing, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other regions or countries. Future studies should expand the sample to include faculty from different geographic and cultural backgrounds.

  2. 2.

    Potential Common Method Bias (CMB): Since all data were collected through self-reported questionnaires, there is a possibility of CMB, where responses may be influenced by individual biases or social desirability. While reverse coding was used to mitigate this, future studies could employ mixed-method approaches, such as interviews or observations, to validate findings.

  3. 3.

    Unexamined External Influences: The study did not account for potential external factors, such as institutional policies, funding availability, or changes in academic governance, that could also affect faculty peer interactions.

Data availability

Data is available on request from the corresponding author.

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    Shen Zhang

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Zhang, S. What affects peer interaction in universities? Examining the effects of paternalistic leadership and peer leadership on peer interaction of teachers. BMC Psychol 13, 306 (2025). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s40359-025-02595-2

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BMC Psychology

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