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The impact of maternal parenting stress on early childhood development: the mediating role of maternal depression and the moderating effect of family resilience

BMC Psychology volume 13, Article number: 277 (2025) Cite this article

Abstract

Objective

Early childhood is a critical stage of rapid cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. The development during this period is crucial for the long-term health and well-being of children. This study investigates the influence of maternal parenting stress on early childhood development, with a specific focus on the mediating role of maternal depression and the moderating effect of family resilience.

Methods

A nine-month longitudinal study was conducted involving 558 children and their mothers.

Results

The study found that maternal parenting stress significantly negatively impacts early childhood development. Maternal depression acts as a mediator between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development. Furthermore, family resilience was found to significantly moderate both the initial and latter parts of this mediating relationship.

Conclusion

The study highlights the protective role of family resilience in this mediating process, contributing to the expansion of the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model and enriching family educational practices.

Peer Review reports

Early childhood development is crucial for the overall development of children [1,2,3]. The capabilities developed during early childhood lay the foundation for the physical, emotional, and intellectual health of individuals during mid-childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, even exerting an impact across generations [4]. Early childhood development has garnered widespread attention globally [4], with the United Nations incorporating it into the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals [5]. Key aspects of early childhood development encompass physical, cognitive, motor, and socio-emotional domains [6]. However, recent research indicates a significant prevalence of developmental delays in children in rural areas of China. A study reported that 49% of children exhibit cognitive delays, 52% manifest language developmental delays, 30% display motor delays, and 53% demonstrate delays in social-emotional aspects [7]. Due to the critical importance of early childhood development outcomes for adult development, such as health status [8], labor market returns [9], social mobility [2], and other adult outcomes [10], delays in early development pose challenges to the formation of human capital in China and long-term economic growth [11].

Currently, international research indicates that during the initial years of life, the human brain is highly susceptible to various biological, socio-psychological, and environmental factors [1, 12, 11]. Among these, parenting stress is considered an important risk factor affecting early child development [13], and it is closely related to both parental mental health and child development [14, 15]. According to attachment theory, mothers under high parenting stress may struggle to maintain sensitive interactions with their children, which in turn affects the security of mother–child attachment [16]. Insecure attachment is closely associated with behavioral problems in preschool children [17] and can have a negative impact on early childhood development.

However, current research examining the link between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development tends to emphasize behavioral analyses, such as authoritarian parenting, neglect, and punishment. While neglecting an in-depth exploration of the psychological dimension [18, 19]. For example, maternal anxiety and depression levels may influence the quality of parent–child interactions, which in turn can have a profound impact on children’s socio-emotional and cognitive development. This gap is particularly noticeable when considering the impact of maternal stress and family resilience within the family environment on early childhood development, rendering existing theories insufficient. The current Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model [20] emphasizes the overall adaptation of the family to stress, it does not sufficiently explain how maternal parenting stress and family resilience affect early childhood development through factors such as parental mental health and emotional regulation. However, differences in Eastern and Western cultural backgrounds may lead to potential variations in maternal parenting stress and early childhood development. For example, in traditional Chinese culture, mothers typically bear the primary caregiving responsibilities [21], while also balancing household duties and work pressures, which increases their parenting burden [22]. Under such high-pressure conditions, maternal emotional well-being and psychological health may be adversely affected, negatively impacting the quality of parent–child interactions and children’s healthy development. Therefore, this study, conducted within the Chinese cultural context, addresses this gap in research on cultural differences.

Furthermore, previous studies on early childhood development often focused only on specific domains, such as early childhood health [23], children’s socio-emotional development [24], or children’s behavioral problems [25]. However, the development of early childhood abilities is comprehensive and holistic [26]. Moreover, holistic assessment is critical for designing effective intervention strategies, as it provides educators and practitioners with more comprehensive guidance. Therefore, this study innovatively explores the holistic development of early childhood abilities.

Maternal parenting stress and early childhood development

Parenting stress is defined as a psychological burden perceived by parents due to the disparity between perceived demands related to parenting and parental resources [26]. It represents a psychological response to the challenges of parenthood. Parenting stress may directly or indirectly exert negative impacts on a child’s development [27]. For instance, there is a significant correlation between children’s externalizing behavior and parenting stress [19]. Approximately half of the children experiencing parenting stress exhibit pronounced oppositional, aggressive, or impulsive behavior. These behaviors tend to persist over time, demonstrating significant continuity throughout a child’s developmental trajectory once established [28, 29]. Moreover, heightened parenting stress often indicates a poorer relationship between the child and the parent, typically the mother [30]. In prospective studies, parenting stress has been found to predict later behavioral issues in children [31]. Additionally, some research suggests that elevated levels of parenting stress adversely impact the interaction between parents and children [32,33,34].

The importance of early childhood development remains profound, laying the foundation for later development in physical, cognitive, motor, and socio-emotional domains, even exerting a multigenerational impact [4]. In recent years, extensive research has focused on identifying key factors influencing early childhood development outcomes [4, 35, 36]. Many studies have found a correlation between the intensity and quality of parental investment and child development [1, 2]. Research indicates that parenting activities, such as reading, singing, and interactive play, significantly impact children’s cognitive, language, and socio-emotional development [37, 38]. For example, parent–child reading directly promotes language development by enriching children’s vocabulary and enhancing semantic understanding [39]. Interactive play, on the other hand, improves social skills and promotes emotional regulation by encouraging positive communication and emotional interaction between children and parents [40]. These activities play a crucial role during the critical period of brain development by providing multisensory stimulation, social-emotional support, and a language and cognitive environment for children.

According to the Family Systems Theory [41], the family is an interconnected system, and interactions among family members play a crucial role in a child’s development. Parenting stress, as per this theory, can disrupt the balance of the family system, negatively affecting a child’s development, suggesting a close relationship between parenting stress and early childhood development. Trumello et al.’s (2023) research demonstrates the link between parenting stress and children’s behavioral functioning [42], while Babore et al. ‘s (2023) study found that maternal parenting stress mediates the relationship between maternal distress and child depression [43]. Other studies have indicated that maternal parenting stress can influence the development of children’s externalizing behaviors [44]. These research findings underscore the impact of parenting stress on early childhood development.

Maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, and early childhood development

Medical research indicates that depression is a common, debilitating, and potentially life-threatening illness [45, 46]. Various factors contribute to the occurrence of depression, such as shared genetic factors, convergent biological pathways, social factors, health behaviors, and psychological factors [47]. Epidemiological surveys show a lifetime prevalence of 16.6% for major depression, with females reaching 21.3% [48]. Depression brings profound suffering to individuals and families, simultaneously impacting personal abilities and development, impairing social functioning, and hindering economic productivity. Severe depression can even lead to premature physical illnesses and suicidal tendencies [49]. A World Health Organization survey indicates that depression remains a leading cause of disability globally [46].

Parenting stress can predict the level of depression. According to the Social Support Theory [50], parents facing challenges and stress in parenting are more likely to feel isolated and helpless, thereby increasing the risk of depression. Studies have shown that the level of parental depression is related to parenting stress in the initial months after the birth of the child [51, 52]. A study by Lin et al. (2014) indicates that mothers with higher parenting stress often experience greater distress [40]. Additionally, higher maternal parenting stress predicts greater maternal depression, which is associated with impaired social-emotional functioning in children [53].

Furthermore, maternal depression affects early childhood development. Depression may influence a mother’s caregiving abilities, thereby impacting the early developmental abilities of children [54]. Priel et al. ‘s (2020) study reveals that caregiving deficits in depressed mothers have an impact on the emotional, social, and cognitive outcomes of children a decade later [55]. The results suggest that maternal depression severely impairs the child’s emotional regulation and executive function. Rogers et al. (2020), through meta-analysis, found that maternal perinatal depression and anxiety are associated with poorer offspring socio-emotional, cognitive, language, motor, and adaptive behavioral outcomes [56].

The moderating role of family resilience

As society undergoes changes, families face an increasing number of challenges [57], including issues such as unemployment, poverty, substance abuse, and parenting stress [58]. These inevitably impact the family environment and each member, with some even affecting the physical and mental development of children [59]. Faced with persistent challenges or stressors, some families may fracture, while others can withstand the challenges and recover from them. Family resilience is a key factor in this regard, defined as the ability of family members to successfully cope with adversity, enabling them to thrive in warmth, support, and cohesion [60]. At the same time, some scholars consider family resilience as a characteristic of the family [61] and affirm its positive role in the family environment. From the perspective of family resilience, the success of a family is based on the belief that both individual and family growth can be achieved through cooperative efforts in facing challenges. A resiliency lens shifts perspective from viewing families as damaged to seeing them as challenged, and it affirms their reparative potential [62].

Family systems theory posits that the interactions among the components of a family system influence each other, and a characteristic of the family can impact the entire family system or family subsystems [63]. For instance, family resilience can affect maternal parenting stress. In families with high and low resilience, the negative emotions experienced by mothers due to parenting stress may vary. Moreover, research suggests that lower family resilience can lead to poor internal communication among family members, triggering more significant family conflicts, and increasing maternal parenting stress and depression levels [64]. In families with high resilience, a positive outlook on life and effective parent–child communication can better help mothers alleviate parenting stress, consequently reducing their levels of depression [65].

The theory of person-environment interaction holds that parent–child interactions, as a process of interpersonal communication, undoubtedly are influenced by the interactional parties or the environment [66]. Mothers with higher levels of depression are more prone to negative emotions such as irritability, anger, and anxiety in parent–child interactions, often lacking enthusiasm and patience. This, in turn, increases the risk of children developing behavioral issues like anxiety and depression [67]. In environments with higher resilience, good communication and a positive outlook on life can effectively improve parent–child relationships, promoting the mutual development of both parties [59]. Additionally, from a policy perspective, enhancing family resilience and connections can foster early childhood development and child well-being [68].

The current study

This study is based on Family Systems Theory, exploring how maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, and family resilience interact to influence early childhood development. Family Systems Theory emphasizes that the family is a system composed of multiple interconnected individuals, where changes in one member can affect the functioning of the entire family system. As a crucial member of the family, a mother’s psychological health and parenting stress may influence other family members, thereby having a profound impact on early childhood development. Therefore, this study aims to examine the relationship between maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, and children’s behavior problems, as well as how family resilience moderates these relationships to influence early childhood development. Therefore, we propose the hypothesis:

  • H1: Maternal parenting stress will significantly negatively predict early childhood development.

  • H2: Maternal depression will mediate the relationship between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development.

  • H2a: Maternal parenting stress will significantly positively predict maternal depression.

  • H2b: Maternal depression will significantly negatively predict early childhood development.

  • H3: Family resilience will moderate the relationship between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression.

  • H4: Family resilience will moderate the relationship between maternal depression and early childhood development.

The theoretical hypothesis model of this study is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Theoretical hypothesis model

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Methods

Participants

For this study, three randomly selected kindergartens in Shanghai were involved. All children and their mothers from these three kindergartens were invited to participate. The survey was conducted in two phases using electronic questionnaires: from April to May 2022 (T1), Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Family Resilience Assessment Scale were distributed, and from January to February 2023 (T2), the Chinese Early Human Capability Index (eHCI) scale was distributed. Researchers excluded data with significantly short completion times. The first round yielded 624 valid questionnaires, and the second round produced 607 valid questionnaires. After pairing the data from both rounds, a total of 558 sets of data were successfully matched. The 38 cases where data from children and mothers were not successfully matched were considered as loss. Little’s MCAR test revealed that the missing samples were completely randomly distributed (χ2 = 58.141, df = 90, p = 0.996) [69]. The final analysis included data from 558 children (301 girls and 257 boys) and their mothers. The age range of the children was 50 to 96 months (M = 63.88, SD = 8.146). Demographic information is presented in Table 1. Ethical approval was obtained from the corresponding author’s institution, following the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration. Informed consent was obtained from each mother before participation.

Table 1 Demographics characteristics of the study participants (N = 558)
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Measures

Maternal parenting stress

Maternal parenting stress was measured using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) [70]. The Chinese version of this scale has been validated in China [71], demonstrating good psychometric quality, and it has been widely used in related research in China [72]. The scale consists of 36 items, with a sample item being “Gave up my life for children’s needs,” scored on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The total score is calculated by summing all the items and averaging them, with a range of 1 to 5. Higher scores indicate greater levels of parenting stress. In this study, the Cronbach’s α for maternal parenting stress was 0.946.

Maternal depression

In this study, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) [73] was used to measure the level of maternal depression. The Chinese version of the scale was translated and validated [74]. The scale has demonstrated good psychometric quality in China [75]. The scale comprises 21 items, each rated from 0 to 3. The total score is calculated by summing the scores of all items, with a possible range of 0 to 63. Higher scores reflect greater levels of depression. An example item is “I feel that the future is hopeless and that things cannot improve.” In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.874.

Family resilience

Self-reported Family Resilience Assessment Scale (FRAS) [76] was used to measure family resilience in this study. The Chinese version of the Family Resilience Scale was translated and validated [77] and has been widely used in Chinese research [78]. The scale demonstrated good psychometric quality [79]. The scale consists of 32 items, each rated on a 4-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). The total score is derived by summing the scores of all items and calculating the average. The scale ranges from 1 to 4, with higher scores indicating greater family resilience. An example item is “We can deal with family differences in accepting a loss.” In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.986.

Early childhood development

The Early Human Capability Index (eHCI) [80] was used to assess early childhood development in this study. The Chinese version of the early childhood development scale was translated and validated [81] and has been widely used in Chinese children [82]. The eHCI comprises 62 survey questions reported by parents, caregivers, or teachers, covering nine aspects of child development. The eHCI include nine key areas: physical health (motor skills and general well-being), verbal communication (language expression and comprehension), cultural knowledge (understanding of cultural norms), social and emotional skills (interaction and emotional management), perseverance (task persistence), approaches to learning (curiosity and problem-solving), numeracy (basic math skills), reading (early literacy), and writing (fine motor and writing attempts). These domains collectively provide a comprehensive assessment of a child’s developmental capabilities. The scale assesses the overall developmental capabilities of children. Each item is scored on a binary scale (1 = able/yes, 0 = unable/no). The total score is obtained by summing the scores of each item and calculating the average. The score range of the scale is from 0 to 1, with higher scores indicating better early childhood development. An example item is “Can the child persist in completing a task from start to finish?” In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficient for this scale was 0.844.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

In this research, socioeconomic status (SES) was determined based on parents’ educational backgrounds and occupational rankings. Fathers’ and mothers’ professions were classified into 13 categories, with scores ranging from 1 (retired, unemployed, or laid off) to 13 (government officials or leaders). Likewise, education levels were assigned six tiers, with scores spanning from 1 (elementary school or lower) to 6 (postgraduate degree). The SES calculation involved the following steps: first, the higher occupational status and educational achievement between the two parents were selected as representative values. These values were then standardized, followed by a principal component analysis. The final SES score was derived using the equation: SES = (0.763 × Z_occupation + 0.763 × Z_education) / 1.164, where 0.763 denotes the factor loadings of the respective indicators, and 1.164 corresponds to the eigenvalue of the first principal component.

Data analysis

In this study, SPSS 22.0 and SPSS PROCESS 4.0 were employed for the statistical analysis of the data. SPSS 22.0 was used for descriptive statistical analysis and correlation analysis. SPSS PROCESS 4.0 was utilized to examine moderated mediation effects. Based on previous literature, children’s age [83], gender [84, 85], and socioeconomic status (SES) [86] may influence early childhood development. Therefore, these three variables were considered as control variables in this study.

Results

Common method bias test

Harman’s single-factor test was employed to examine common method bias. The results revealed 33 common factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1, and the first factor explained a variance of 19.496%, which is less than 40%. Therefore, this study does not suffer from a severe common method bias issue [87].

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis of variables

The Pearson correlation results among variables in this study are presented in Table 2. Maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, family resilience, and early childhood development exhibit significant pairwise correlations. The results indicate a significant positive correlation between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression, a significant negative correlation between maternal parenting stress and family resilience, and a significant negative correlation between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development. Maternal depression shows a significant negative correlation with family resilience and early childhood development. Family resilience demonstrates a significant positive correlation with early childhood development.

Table 2 Correlations and descriptive statistics of measured variables (N = 558)
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Moderated mediation analysis

Moderated mediation analysis using the SPSS PROCESS macro was conducted, with parameter estimates employing the bootstrap method and 5000 sample extractions. In this study, child age, gender, and socioeconomic status (SES) were treated as control variables, while all other variables were standardized.

Firstly, the SPSS PROCESS Model 4 was employed to test the mediating effect, controlling for child age, gender, and SES. Maternal parenting stress significantly positively predicted maternal depression (β = 4.367, p < 0.001), and it significantly negatively predicted early childhood development (β = −0.041, p < 0.001). Maternal depression also significantly negatively predicted early childhood development (β = −0.001, p < 0.05). Maternal depression partially mediated the relationship between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development (95%CI [−0.0133,−0.0002]), as shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Analysis of direct effects in the mediation model (N = 558)
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To examine the moderating effect of family resilience in the mediated model, family resilience was introduced into the model. SPSS PROCESS Model 58 was utilized for further moderation analysis. The moderating effect of family resilience is presented in Table 4. The interaction term between maternal parenting stress and family resilience significantly predicted maternal depression (β = −2.485, p < 0.01). The interaction term between maternal depression and family resilience significantly predicted early childhood development (β = 0.004, p < 0.01). Thus, a moderated mediation effect was identified.

Table 4 Analysis of moderated mediation effects (N = 558)
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Interaction effect analysis

To reveal the essence of the interaction, further simple slope analysis was conducted by adding and subtracting one standard deviation from the moderating variable, family resilience, creating high and low family resilience groups. The moderating effect of family resilience between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression is depicted in Fig. 2. In the high family resilience group, the positive predictive effect of maternal parenting stress on maternal depression was significant (simple slope = 2.271, t = 3.398, p < 0.01). Similarly, in the low family resilience group, the positive predictive effect of maternal parenting stress on maternal depression was also significant (simple slope = 4.513, t = 7.445, p < 0.001). Comparatively, in the low family resilience group, the slope of the positive predictive effect of maternal parenting stress on maternal depression was larger than that in the high family resilience group. The moderating effect of family resilience between maternal depression and early childhood development is illustrated in Fig. 3. In the high family resilience group, the predictive effect of maternal depression on early childhood development was not significant (simple slope = 0.001, t = 0.746, p = 0.456). However, in the low family resilience group, the negative predictive effect of maternal depression on early childhood development was significant (simple slope = −0.002, t = −2.974, p < 0.01).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Simple slope test of the moderating effect of family resilience between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression

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Fig. 3
figure 3

Simple slope test of the moderating effect of family resilience between maternal depression and early childhood development

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Moreover, to precisely estimate the effect interval of family resilience, the Johnson-Neyman method was applied to calculate the significant intervals of the simple slopes for different values of family resilience. Figure 4 shows that the positive predictive effect of maternal parenting stress on maternal depression was significant for all values of family resilience. Figure 5 illustrates that the predictive effect of maternal depression on early childhood development was significant when the family resilience value was less than −0.179. Conversely, when the family resilience value was greater than −0.179, the predictive effect of maternal depression on early childhood development was not significant.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Johnson-neyman plot of the moderating effect of family resilience between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression

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Fig. 5
figure 5

Johnson-neyman plot of the moderating effect of family resilience between maternal depression and early childhood development

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Discussion

Firstly, this study reveals that maternal parenting stress significantly predicts early childhood development in a negative manner, aligning with previous research findings [42]. Maternal parenting stress has adverse effects on early childhood development. The underlying reasons for this result may lie in the impact of parenting stress on the psychological and emotional states of mothers. An increase in maternal parenting stress may lead to more emotional distress and psychological pressure for mothers [88], which, in turn, may affect their interaction with their children. Mothers experiencing high levels of parenting stress might exhibit emotional instability and anxiety, reducing their sensitivity and responsiveness to their children’s needs, thereby preventing children from receiving sufficient emotional support and security from their mothers [16]. This lack of emotional security negatively affects children’s emotional security, which in turn impacts the development of their social-emotional skills and mental health [89]. Additionally, parenting stress could reduce opportunities for mothers to engage in positive interactions with their children, which can hinder the development of children’s cognitive, language, and other abilities [90, 91]. Previous research has also confirmed a close relationship between maternal parenting stress and children’s developmental issues in areas such as cognition, emotion, social adaptation, and emotional regulation [92]. Therefore, maternal parenting stress plays a significant negative role in early childhood development.

The study results indicate that maternal depression plays a mediating role between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development. This implies that maternal parenting stress affects early childhood development by triggering or exacerbating maternal depressive emotions. Specifically, the parenting stress experienced by mothers may increase the risk of depressive symptoms [93]. The changes in this emotional state may impact the daily interactions between mothers and children, thereby influencing the emotional, social, and cognitive development of children. Mothers with high levels of depression may exhibit less emotional responsiveness and positive stimulation in their interactions with children [94]. Additionally, mothers with elevated depression may struggle to provide a stable and supportive environment for children, which is considered a crucial factor in early childhood development [95]. Furthermore, the emotional state of mothers is vital for the formation of a secure attachment relationship with children. Depressive symptoms may interfere with the establishment of this secure attachment, thereby affecting the social adaptability of children [96], which, in turn, impacts early childhood development.

This study reveals that family resilience plays a moderating role between maternal parenting stress and maternal depression. When faced with parenting challenges, families with high resilience are more able to flexibly organize resources and effectively cope with stress, reducing its negative impact on family members [60]. Resilient families are able to maintain hope and a positive attitude towards crises and stress through active belief systems and organizational patterns, enabling them to cope with life’s adversities [97]. Additionally, families with high resilience can provide a supportive family environment, promote effective communication, and offer emotional support to mothers, providing positive coping strategies to alleviate their parenting stress [98]. For example, family members can offer mutual support in stressful situations, helping mothers recover from difficulties and effectively reduce the negative emotions arising from parenting challenges [99], This family support system enhances the mother’s coping ability, alleviates parenting stress, and reduces the risk of maternal depression.

The study also identifies that family resilience moderates the relationship between maternal depression and early childhood development. When mothers experience depression, family resilience serves as a protective factor, helping to alleviate the direct impact of depression on early childhood development. In a highly resilient family, family resilience is reflected through family communication processes, which promote open emotional expression and empathy, while also establishing a collaborative problem-solving team. This enables family members to take proactive action when needed, collectively addressing challenges [79], reducing maternal depressive symptoms, fostering family harmony, and promoting the development of children [65]. In conditions of low family resilience, mothers facing parenting stress may feel isolated and struggle to effectively cope with the challenges of stress. This may exacerbate maternal depressive symptoms, subsequently negatively impacting early childhood development [64].

Theoretical contribution

The Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model [20] is a theoretical framework designed to understand how families respond to and cope with stressors over time. It emphasizes the significance of family resources in influencing a family’s adjustment and adaptation to stressors. While the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model provides valuable insights into family dynamics and stress responses, it may not fully explain the impact of family stress and resilience on early childhood development. This study addresses this gap by extending the model’s outcome variables from family adaptation to the early development of children within the family. It explores the crucial role of coping with stress and family resilience in shaping early childhood development within the family context. This research broadens the application scope of the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model in the field of family education.

Practical contribution

Through empirical research, this study reveals the intricate relationships among maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, and family resilience concerning early childhood development. In family education practices, it is essential to first reduce maternal parenting stress. This can be achieved by participating in parental support groups to provide social support, enabling mothers to share parenting experiences and stressors. Additionally, assisting mothers in balancing family and personal life through learning time management and relaxation techniques is crucial. Secondly, mitigating maternal depression levels is imperative. Positive psychological interventions, such as mindfulness training and cognitive-behavioral therapy, can aid mothers in improving emotional and cognitive patterns [100]. Furthermore, enhancing family resilience requires strengthening communication skills within the family, consulting to improve communication and conflict resolution abilities among family members. Encouraging family members to collaboratively establish mechanisms for coping with difficulties and stress is also beneficial.

Limitations and future research

This study has several limitations in its design and implementation. Firstly, due to the utilization of samples from a specific cultural background in China, the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts may be restricted. Secondly, this study mainly relies on mothers’ self-reported data, which may lead to subjective bias. Future research could assess children’s overall development through joint evaluations by mothers, fathers, and daycare caregivers or teachers. Additionally, incorporating perspectives from fathers, children, or other family members could further explore family resilience. Additionally, this study focused solely on the impact of maternal parenting stress and depression on children’s development, without considering the role of fathers. The influence of fathers in parenting may be equally important, and future research should include relevant paternal factors to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the joint effects of both parents. Lastly, this research examined the overall situation of early childhood development without delving into the specific development of certain abilities. Considering the unevenness in the early development of children [81], future research could investigate the influence of maternal parenting stress, maternal depression, and family resilience on specific domains of early childhood development.

Conclusion

This study reveals that family resilience plays a moderating role between maternal parenting stress and early childhood development. Family resilience also serves as a moderator between maternal depression and early childhood development. The research highlights the unique role of family resilience as a crucial protective factor in early childhood development and maternal depression. The findings of this study expand the Family Adjustment and Adaptation Response Model, providing significant implications for guiding family parenting practices.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Funding

This work was supported by STI 2030-Major Projects (Nos. 2022ZD0209000, 2022ZD0209001, 2022ZD0209002, 2022ZD0209003, 2022ZD0209004, 2022ZD0209005, and 2021ZD0200516).

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  1. Shanghai Institute of Early Childhood Education, Shanghai Normal University, Xuhui District, 100 Guilin Road, Shanghai, China

    Baocheng Pan, Yizhao Gong, Youli Wang, Jiaxuan Miao, Chengli Zhao & Yan Li

  2. Lab for Educational Big Data and Policymaking, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, China

    Baocheng Pan & Yan Li

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The execution of this paper was a collaborative effort on behalf of all authors. BP and YL conceptualized and designed the study. BP, JM and CZ conducted the data collection and analysis. YG,YW and YL drafted and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Pan, B., Gong, Y., Wang, Y. et al. The impact of maternal parenting stress on early childhood development: the mediating role of maternal depression and the moderating effect of family resilience. BMC Psychol 13, 277 (2025). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s40359-025-02575-6

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