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Impact of the sense of power on loneliness among international students in China: the chain mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma

BMC Psychology volume 12, Article number: 784 (2024) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Loneliness is a common emotional experience among international students that can affect their mental health, cultural adaptation, and academic development. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the relationship between a sense of power and loneliness among international students, and to examine the mediating role of loneliness stigma and perceived discrimination.

Methods

The study used the generalized sense of power scale, experiences with discrimination scale, stigma loneliness scale (SLS), and UCLA loneliness scale-6 (ULS -6) for 529 international students in China. The study conducted descriptive statistical analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, Spearman correlation analysis, and chain mediation model test on the obtained data using SPSS 20.0 and PROCESS v4.0.

Results

The sense of power was significantly negatively related to perceived discrimination, and loneliness stigma, with the result that loneliness, and perceived discrimination, loneliness stigma, and loneliness were significantly positively related. The sense of power can directly affect international students’ loneliness (β = -0.167, t = -4.298, p < 0.01), or indirectly affect loneliness through three paths: the mediating role of perceived discrimination, the mediating role of loneliness stigma, and the chain mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. The total indirect effect value was -0.234, and the indirect effect values for each pathway were -0.153, -0.059, and -0.022, respectively.

Conclusion

A sense of power can directly affect loneliness in international students and indirectly by reducing perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. The results of this study contributed to a better understanding of the relationship between a sense of power and loneliness and its mechanism, providing a reference for carrying on mental health education work for international students.

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Introduction

As Chinese universities increasingly emphasize international exchanges and cooperation, the number of international students in China is growing. According to data from the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, nearly 500,000 international students from 196 countries and regions studied in thousands of Chinese universities in 2018. What international students have to face are not only the same academic and employment pressures as local students but also various challenges, such as cross-cultural adaptation, language communication difficulties, changes in diet and lifestyle habits, homesickness, insufficient social support, and economic pressure [1, 2]. Studies have shown that common mental health problems among international students include anxiety, depression, stress, and psychological distress, and that isolation, economic hardship, and discrimination can exacerbate the damage to well-being [3,4,5]. For international students far from home, their existing social networks and communication styles are bound to change to varying degrees, which in turn may lead to loneliness [6]. In a qualitative study, it was found that language communication barriers and cultural adaptation difficulties undermined the self-confidence and self-identity of international students, reduced the initiative of social integration, and increased social disengagement and loneliness [7].

Loneliness is an emotionally unpleasant subjective experience that occurs when an individual perceives the quantity or quality of interpersonal relationships to be insufficient [8]. In most of the literature, loneliness is associated with poor mental health and behavioral problems among international students, such as depression, anxiety, stress, suicidal ideation, excessive use of mobile phones, low social self-efficacy, and poor interpersonal relationships [9,10,11]. In addition, loneliness derives from a product of multiple converging. A review study, pointed out that influential factors of loneliness in emerging adulthood encompass family relationships, mobile phone use, social environment, health behaviors, growth experiences, romantic relationships, parenting styles, and personality traits [8]. Among them, the sense of power, as an important psychological variable, can change a person’s perception of interpersonal relationships and then impact feelings of loneliness [12]. Currently, only limited studies have centered on the relationship between a sense of power and loneliness, and there is a lack of empirical evidence from international student groups. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of a sense of power on loneliness and its mediating mechanism in international students with the ideal intention of providing hints and insights for the mental health education work done on international students as well as school management.

The relationship between sense of power and loneliness

The sense of power is an individual’s perception of their ability to influence and control others or groups in social relationships [13]. Unlike objective power, the sense of power is a subjective psychological experience that is not the same as the social status or actual resources an individual possesses. According to the Social Distance Theory of Power (SDTP), high-power individuals are less dependent on interpersonal relationships, are less motivated to seek and maintain relationships, and tend to choose independent and autonomous activities to create or maintain a high level of social distance [14]. Whereas low-power individuals are more motivated to develop intimate relationships, are more sensitive to interpersonal relationships, and expected to engage in more relationships [15]. Therefore, as the sense of power increases, the individual’s need for the quantity or quality of their relationships decreases, helping to alleviate the emergence of loneliness. Moreover, the theory emphasizes that high-power individuals tend to perceive interpersonal objects as more substitutable, underestimate the significance of relationships, and are less likely to be negatively affected by social exclusion or interpersonal rejection than low-power cohorts [16].

The sense of power not only affects an individual’s attitude towards interpersonal relationships but also enhances their sense of social connection against loneliness [17]. Individuals with a sense of power tend to overestimate their status in social networks, be positive towards their relationships with others, and perceive a heightened sense of social connection [18]. Additionally, some empirical evidence also supports the relationship between a sense of power and loneliness. For example, the results of Sun et al.’s experimental studies showed that the sense of power levels up college students’ perceived social support, contributing to declined loneliness and that this effect is moderated by social exclusion [19]. Waytz et al., based on 8 experimental studies, found that people with a high sense of power had a lower need to belong and loneliness, while those with a low sense of power had a higher sense of loneliness [20]. Therefore, it is inferred that there is a negative correlation between the sense of power and loneliness among international students.

The mediating role of perceived discrimination

International students exposed to a strange country are inclined to perceive exclusion and discrimination, which mainly stems from language barriers, differences in lifestyle habits, and cultural conflicts. In addition to language-related discrimination, discrimination based on race is more common and can make international students feel ignored, rejected, ridiculed, and treated differently [21]. Perceived discrimination refers to individuals’ subjective feelings of negative attitude, judgment, or unfair treatment towards themselves and their group from the outside world [22]. Perceived discrimination is a potential challenge for international students in adapting to a new culture, which can have a negative impact on their psychological, behavioral, and health status. Concretely when international students perceive discrimination, they may tend to reduce or avoid social contact with local students, refuse to integrate into mainstream society, prefer segregation and marginalization strategies, and experience loneliness [23]. All in all, international students with experience of discrimination may perceive the country they are located in as an unfriendly place where they refuse to adapt to new environments and make new friends, unfortunately leading to social isolation, disconnection, and loneliness.

As implied in the social support deterioration model, discrimination or traumatic events are a salient stressor that may deteriorate one’s perceived social support and aggravate loneliness, further bring amplified psychological distress [24]. Previous studies have found that perceived discrimination is negatively associated with international students’ integration, sociocultural adjustment, and psychological adjustment, and positively associated with loneliness [25, 26]. Imai et al. showed that perceived discrimination among international students positively predicted homesickness and loneliness, and that a sense of belonging buffered against the harms of perceived discrimination [27]. In addition, Maleku et al. found that perceived discrimination was a significant predictor of depression, loneliness, and anxiety in international students [28]. Moreover, evidence from a follow-up study suggested that perceived discrimination has a persistent effect on individuals’ depression and loneliness [29]. Therefore, perceived discrimination is a potentially influential factor on loneliness among international students.

Differing from the objective experience of discrimination, perceived discrimination varies along with international students’ cognitive styles and psychological state. Attentionally, the sense of power may be the antecedent variable of perceived discrimination of international students. According to the Approach-Inhibition Theory of Power, a high sense of power activates the Behavior Approach System (BAS), enhances an individual’s attention and sensitivity to gains and rewards, and shows more approach behaviors [30]. In contrast, a low sense of power activates the Behavior Inhibition System (BIS), which strengthens individuals’ attention and sensitivity to punishment, loss, and threat, and increases their vigilance to threatening information in the environment, performing more avoidance behaviors [31]. Therefore, as the sense of power decreases, international students become more sensitive to discrimination cues with consequence of perceived higher levels of discrimination. In addition, the sense of power raises an individual’s prosocial and benevolent nature, reduces the level of retaliation of offense and rumination, promotes interpersonal forgiveness, and better maintains interpersonal relationships [32]. Thus, the sense of power is propitious to reduce perceived discrimination and subsequently loneliness in international students.

The mediating role of loneliness stigma

In the dominant narrative, people view loneliness as a relatively stable trait in a person, largely boiling down to one’s problems or deficits, for example, a lack of social skills or specific genetic influential factors [33]. When formulating intervention measures, the majority focuses on individual perspective, ignoring the role social factors played, following this, to mainly reduce the risk of emerging loneliness or make up the harm caused by loneliness [34]. In other words, loneliness is a topic being stigmatized. Loneliness stigma refers to the derogatory and stigmatizing stereotypes that individuals hold towards loneliness and feel ashamed, discriminated against, ostracized, and socially disadvantaged because of their loneliness [35]. In Lau et al.’s study, it was found that compared to individuals who not feel lonely, people often evaluate people who feel lonely as having poor adaptability, difficulty achieving success, poor social skills, passivity, insincerity, weak personality, low popularity, and difficulty making friends. In effect, people who feel lonely may withhold a more severe stigma towards loneliness [36].

Since the concept of stigma was proposed, power has been a central issue in related research [37]. Drawing on the conceptual model of stigma, it is posited that individuals with power or discourse power can identify specific characteristics of a particular population and associate them with negative labels, resulting in stigma [38]. That is to say, the relative power difference shown between the stigmatized and the stigmatizer is a prerequisite for labeling, stereotyping, loss of status, demeaning discrimination, and stigma to arise. In addition, the sense of power can affect not only the individual’s perception and evaluation of the stigmatized identity but also stigma management strategies [39]. Individuals with lower levels of sense of power tend to adopt strategies of silence, compromise, and passive acceptance when coping with negative labeling and maintain higher levels of stigma [40]. Moreover, individuals with a low sense of power constantly maintain surveillance of information about the external environment and are susceptible to negative labels associated with loneliness and internalize them as part of their self-evaluation. Compared to those with a low sense of power, those with a high sense of power have a lower ability to select their views and are less influenced by the views and evaluations of others, which helps to reduce the impact of external stigmatizing information on self-evaluation [41]. Thus, the sense of power may be an antecedent variable of loneliness stigma.

Loneliness stigma can stir up a range of harmful consequences, among which impaired personal relationships and amplified loneliness are the most typical ramification [42]. Individuals with a high loneliness stigma tend to conceal their experiences of loneliness and are less likely to seek help from others to avoid leaving negative impressions of their abilities or personalities to others [43]. Furthermore, stigma can undermine an individual’s trust in others, cause a decline in self-esteem, sense of control, and belonging, damage established or new relationships, and trigger feelings of loneliness [44]. At the same time, loneliness stigma can intensify individuals’ avoidance and rejection of social situations, accompanying higher levels of shyness, social anxiety, and social phobia, following this, they may more frequently experience loneliness [45]. The relationship between loneliness stigma and loneliness has been explored in previous studies. For example, Ko et al. found that loneliness stigma was significantly positively correlated with self-concealment and loneliness, and significantly negatively correlated with social connection and social self-efficacy [46]. Barreto et al. indicated that loneliness stigma increased individuals’ tendency to conceal loneliness and exacerbated feelings of loneliness [47].

Perceived discrimination and the chain mediation of loneliness stigma

Discriminatory experiences and feelings of shame are driving factors for stigmatization [48]. To put it directly, international students who encounter discrimination attributed to their loneliness may internalize the negative stereotypes associated with loneliness, which gives rise to the creation of loneliness stigma. The “Why try” effect of stigma indicates that self-stigma develops through 3 stages–-awareness of the stigmatizing message, agreement with it, and applying it to one’s self, which can cause diminished self-esteem and self-efficacy [49]. In addition, the conceptual model of stigma also states that stigma is a product of social, cultural, economic, and political power, while discrimination is a formative factor of stigma [38]. Both theories emphasize that the individual’s identification and perception of discriminatory information play an important role in the formation and internalization of stigma.

What’s more, the experience of discrimination can elevate one’s anticipated potential discrimination, in the future, ultimately reflecting on loneliness stigma. To be specific individuals who experience discrimination, exclusion, or ridicule driven by their feeling of loneliness tend to be pessimistic attitude towards interpersonal communication in the future, and their expected and perceived discrimination also increase, followed by increased loneliness stigma [50]. For instance, Wang et al. asserted that perceived discrimination exacerbated the stigma for parents whose children are autistic, witnessing side effects of lower perceived social support and led to social anxiety [51]. Besides, a review study noted that experiences and perceptions of discrimination can upgrade individuals’ expectations of discrimination and self-stigma, therefore, negatively impacting their mental health [52]. In short, perceived discrimination may affect loneliness stigma in international students.

The current study

This study aimed to explore the impact of the sense of power on international students’ loneliness and the chain mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. Combining existing relevant theories and empirical evidence, the study proposed the following hypotheses: (a) Hypothesis H1: Sense of power is significantly negatively correlated with loneliness in international students; (b) Hypothesis H2: Perceived discrimination plays a mediating role in the effect of sense of power on loneliness in international students; (c) Hypothesis H3: Loneliness stigma plays a mediating role in the effect of sense of power on loneliness in international students; and (d) Hypothesis H4: In the impact of sense of power perception on international students’ loneliness, perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma play a chain mediating role. The theoretical hypothetical model diagram of the study is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Diagram of the theoretical hypothetical model

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Materials and methods

Participants

The study adopted convenience sampling and utilized an online platform for data collection. The researchers selected 8 universities in China’s Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Yunnan provinces to recruit international students who study in China. The researchers communicated with the international students’ education management departments and obtained consent to send the survey links to them. The questionnaire described in detail the purpose of this survey and the anonymity and confidentiality of the data. Moreover, the survey obtained informed consent from the respondents and international students voluntarily participated in the questionnaire survey. In addition, the guidelines and item contents of the questionnaire included both English and Chinese language versions to facilitate students’ reading. In the end, the study collected 529 questionnaires. The youngest was 18, the oldest was 43, and the average age was 23.76 ± 5.08. The international students came from 83 countries and were distributed in 6 continents: Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Africa, and Oceania. Specific Socio-demographic information is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Socio-demographic information of participants (n = 529)
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Measures

Generalized sense of power scale

The Generalized Sense of Power Scale can be used to assess the generalized beliefs about the power that individuals possess in relationships [53]. The scale has good reliability and validity, exampled by the scale showing high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α coefficient = 0.73). The scale consists of 8 items and adopts a 7-level rating system, with options ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree”. The sum of the scores of each item is the total score, and the higher the score, the higher the level of the individual’s sense of power. The Cronbach’s α coefficient for the scale in this study was 0.73.

Experiences with discrimination scale

The Experiences with Discrimination Scale can be used to assess the perceived discrimination of international students while studying and living in the host country [23]. The scale was developed to assess the perceived discrimination against international students and immigrants, showing high reliability (e.g. Cronbach α coefficient = 0.80; retest reliability = 0.49). It consists of 6 items on a 7-point scale, with options ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree.” The higher the score, the higher the level of discrimination perceived by international students. The Cronbach α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.80.

Loneliness Stigma Scale (SLS)

The SLS can be used to assess individuals’ perceived stigmatizing evaluations related to loneliness and the degree to which they stigmatize their loneliness [46]. Previous studies found that SLS shows favorable construct validity and its Cronbach’s α coefficient is 0.88 and retest reliability is 0.68. The scale consists of 10 items divided into 2 dimensions: loneliness self-stigma and loneliness public stigma. The scale adopts a 7-level rating system, with options ranging from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree”. In this study, the Cronbach’s α coefficients for the total scale and the dimensions were 0.91, 0.84, and 0.91, respectively.

UCLA Loneliness Scale-6 (ULS-6)

The UCLA Loneliness Scale is the most used instrument in assessing loneliness and its intervention. The original scale included 20 items, successively followed by simplified questionnaires with various numbers of items [54]. It was found that ULS-6 shows good reliability and validity (e.g. Rasch person reliability = 0.80; Cronbach’s α coefficient = 0.82; item reliability = 0.98). As pointed out in a systematic review, the 6-item version shows a good internal structure and construct validity among questionnaires of the original 20 items and the other nine short-versions, prevailing with the advantages of less response burden and pressure [55] This study selected a simplified questionnaire with 6 items as the evaluation tool. The scale consists of 6 items with a single-dimensional structure and uses a 4-level scoring system. The higher the total score, the higher the loneliness level among international students. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale in this study was 0.77.

Statistical analysis

This study used SPSS 20.0 and PROCESS v4.0 for data analysis. The study used Harman’s one-factor test to examine whether there were common method biases [56]. If the first common factor variance explained rate is less than 40%, it means that there are no serious common method biases in the data. The study used Pearson correlation analysis to explore the correlational relationships between age, sense of power, sense of discrimination, loneliness stigma, and loneliness as well as Spearman correlation analysis to calculate the correlation between gender, learning type, length of residence in China, proficiency in Chinese, and various variables. In addition, Model 6 in PROCESS was used to analyze the chain mediating role of sense of power on loneliness among international students. In the chain mediation model analysis, sense of power, perceived discrimination, loneliness stigma, and loneliness were standardized. Sense of power was used as the independent variable, perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma as the mediator variables, and loneliness as the dependent variable, and age, gender, learning type, length of residence in China, and Chinese language proficiency were used as control variables. The significance of each indirect path was analyzed using Bootstrap method with 5000 repeated samples. If the lower and upper limits of the 95% confidence interval do not include 0, it indicates that the path is significant.

Results

Common method bias test

The study conducted an exploratory factor analysis of all items on the sense of power, loneliness stigma, and perceived discrimination, to observe unrotated factor solutions. The results showed that the variance explained for the first common factor was 31.33%, which is less than the critical value of 40%.

Correlation analysis between variables

The values of the correlation coefficients of international students’ sense of power, loneliness stigma, perceived discrimination, and loneliness are shown in Table 2. The results of Pearson correlation analysis showed that sense of power was significantly negatively correlated with perceived discrimination, loneliness stigma, and loneliness (r = −0.38 ~ 0.43, p < 0.01), and loneliness was significantly positively correlated with perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma (r = 0.38 ~ 0.57, p < 0.01). In addition, the Spearman correlation analysis results in that age, gender, type of study, length of residence in China, and Chinese proficiency were correlated to varying degrees with each variable. Therefore, in the chain mediation model analysis, they were used as control variables.

Table 2 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis results of each variable (n = 529)
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A chain mediation model of the impact of the sense of power on loneliness

The study standardized sense of power, perceived discrimination, loneliness stigma, and feelings of loneliness, and conducted a chain mediation model test using Model 6 in PROCESS. The results showed (see Table 3 and Fig. 2) that the total effect value of sense of power on loneliness among international students was −0.401 (β = −0.401, t = −9.927, p < 0.01) when no mediator variable was added. After adding perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma to the mediation model, the sense of power was a significant predictor of perceived discrimination (β = −0.374, t = −9.030, p < 0.01), loneliness stigma (β = −0.276, t = −6.633, p < 0.01), and loneliness (β = −0.167, t = −4.298, p < 0.01). In addition, perceived discrimination has a significant predictive effect on loneliness stigma (β = 0.254, t = 6.228, p < 0.01) and loneliness (β = 0.215, t = 5.664, p < 0.01). Also, the predictive effect of loneliness stigma on loneliness is significant (β = 0.414, t = 10.515, p < 0.01).

Table 3 Results of the chain mediation model analysis of the effect of a sense of power on loneliness in international students (n = 529)
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Chain mediation model diagram of the influence of international students' sense of power on loneliness. Note:.** p < 0.01

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To examine the significance of each indirect path of sense of power on loneliness, the study used the Bootstrap method with 5000 repeated samples and a 95% confidence interval calculated. If the lower and upper limits of the 95% confidence interval do not contain zero, it means that the indirect path is significant. The results showed (Table 4) that the sense of power can affect loneliness through 3 indirect paths and each path is significant with a total indirect effect value of −0.234.

Table 4 The Bootstrap analysis of the influence pathway of international students’ sense of power on loneliness (n = 529)
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Discussion

Previous studies have found that compared with local students, international students experience loneliness more frequently, and it is more severe in the group with difficulties in establishing cross-border friendships [57]. Loneliness is prevalent among international students and jeopardizes their psychological and behavioral status. To explore the influencing factors of loneliness among international students in China and its internal mechanisms, this study constructed a chain mediation model. The study found that the sense of power can directly affect the loneliness of international students, and can indirectly affect the loneliness through the mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. Specifically, the sense of power can affect loneliness through the mediating role of perceived discrimination, with an indirect effect value of 20.19% of the total effect; the sense of power can affect loneliness through the mediating role of loneliness stigma, with an indirect effect value of 28.43% of the total effect; and the sense of power can affect the loneliness through the chain mediating role of loneliness stigma and perceived discrimination, with an indirect effect value of 9.73% of the total effect. The results of this study help to better understand the influencing factors of loneliness and its occurrence mechanism in international students and provide theoretical references for the development of interventions.

Previous studies have mainly focused on the outcome variables of the sense of power or the antecedent variables of loneliness, while limited studies have analyzed the potential relationship between the two and their mechanisms. Waytz et al. found that the sense of power negatively predicted loneliness [20]. Narayanan et al. claimed in their study that individuals are prone to maintain a higher willingness to connect with others when encountering interpersonal exclusion as the sense of power rises [58]. Besides, Lee and colleagues addressed that people with high sense of power are more likely to centre on interpersonal networks with more knowledge and skills serving relationship development and keep in touch with different cohorts [59]. The above studies explained the relationship between sense of power and loneliness in the populations of American residents or college students, which is consistent with the current study’s result among international students with multicultures. In other words, the sense of power negatively predicts loneliness among international students, which supports hypothesis H1. Sense of power is a social-relational concept, which is the internal representation of one’s power formed in relationships with others [53]. In interpersonal relationships, the sense of power implies asymmetric dependence and control and can enlarge social distance. Having a sense of power means that individuals have fewer needs and dependence on interpersonal relationships, are more independent, free, and confident in dealing with interpersonal problems, can act in their own way, and experience less loneliness [60, 61].

The study addressed that perceived discrimination plays a mediating role in the impact of the sense of power on loneliness, which supports hypothesis H2. It is indicated that international students with a sense of power have a lower level of perceived external discriminatory cues, which facilitates enhanced social integration and reduced loneliness. This result was consistent with the implication of the Approach-Inhibition Theory of Power, which suggested that a low sense of power increases an individual’s sensitivity to threatening information and discriminatory cues, and disrupts interpersonal relationships [14]. In addition, a sense of power can enhance one’s authenticity, with a trait of being less impacted by others’ evaluations and attitudes, but focusing more on the self and one’s concerns, emotions, and opinions, and ignoring discriminatory messages [62]. Moreover, international students who experience less discrimination are more willing to communicate with local students and have higher enthusiasm and initiative to develop new friendships, which is beneficial for diminishing loneliness.

The study found that the loneliness stigma plays a mediating role in the impact of the sense of power on loneliness, which supports hypothesis H3. Sense of power can lead people to construe the self more independently, tending to use the self as a reference, believing that others’ ideas share high similarity with oneself, and having a low identification with external stigmatized information [63]. Meanwhile, the sense of power can reduce an individual’s tendency to identify with the group in order to gain a sense of belonging, and they are less likely to describe themselves as members of the group [62]. That is, individuals with a sense of power rarely describe themselves as lonely when they experience loneliness and show lower levels of identification with negative labels associated with loneliness. Therefore, the sense of power may reduce both an individual’s public stigma and self-loneliness stigma. Moreover, a systematic review and thematic synthesis indicated that under the influence of loneliness stigma, individuals are reluctant to talk about their loneliness, which may trigger passive or negative social attitudes, reduce the frequency of interpersonal communication, and increase loneliness [64]. This study took an empirical approach to reach similar conclusions and found that loneliness stigma was significantly and positively related to loneliness. In sum, the sense of power contributes to reducing loneliness stigma, encompassing the effect of subsequently reduced loneliness in international students.

Most importantly, the study found that perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma serially mediated the association between the sense of power and loneliness among international students. Specifically, the sense of power can reduce perceived discrimination among international students, leading to a decrease in loneliness stigma and a decrease in loneliness, which supports hypothesis H4. It is implied in the results that schools should apply multicultural education to improve the awareness and understanding towards cultural diversities among all students and encourage communication and cooperation among individuals from different cultural backgrounds [65]. The decrease in prejudice and discrimination facilitates international students to engage in the host countries, improving active interpersonal interaction and lowering fear and shame of loneliness, thus diminishing loneliness [66].

Notably, the study proposed perceived discrimination as a potential antecedent variable of loneliness stigma based on relevant theoretical and empirical evidence. However, cross-sectional studies do not analyze the interactions between variables, and loneliness stigma may equally affect perceived discrimination. For example, previous studies have found that under the influence of stereotype threat, individuals with high loneliness stigma lack confidence in maintaining interpersonal relationships, are more sensitive to interpersonal rejection, and anticipate a higher likelihood of encountering rejection in the future [67]. Even when not directly exposed to discrimination, stigmatized individuals can misinterpret others’ behaviors and statements, resulting in higher subjective perceptions of discrimination [68]. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt a longitudinal tracking approach to further explore the relationship between perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma in future studies, in order to better explain the mechanism of the impact of sense of power on loneliness.

This study possesses some theoretical value. First, this study validated and extended the social distance theory of power, which mainly elaborates on the role of the sense of power in the establishment and maintenance of interpersonal or intimate relationships among adolescents or emerging adulthood, but less in international students. Besides, the theory emphasizes that the effect of the sense of power on intimate relationships mainly depends on the interdependence and social distance between the two parties in interpersonal interactions, and considers the sense of power as an antecedent variable of loneliness. On this basis, this study further explored the mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma in the relationship between the two in the international students, which propels the announcement of the mechanism of the sense of power on loneliness. Moreover, perceived discrimination is a critical challenge faced in front of international students. By exploring the antecedent and outcome variables of perceived discrimination, this study both revealed the mechanism of perceived discrimination on loneliness and provided theoretical references for interventions on perceived discrimination from the perspective of the sense of power.

This study can offer a reference for mental health education or psychological counseling for international students, thereby assisting them in better adapting to the new culture and minimizing the negative consequences of social network degradation. The sense of power is a subjective psychological feeling that can be activated by an appropriate environmental stimulus. After the activation of the sense of power, related concepts and behavioral tendencies are stored in memory and affect an individual’s performance in other contexts [31]. Therefore, in psychological counseling, recalling and writing about experiences with a sense of power can enhance international students’ sense of power and improve their interpersonal relationships in real-life situations. In addition, as perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma increase, international students’ self-confidence, initiative, and social efficacy in establishing and maintaining new friendships decline in response, and they become more sensitive to interpersonal exclusion and rejection. In this regard, education administrations targeting international students need to assess the perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma of international students and react with appropriate interventions.

Limitations

The limitations of this study mainly lie in 4 aspects. First, the study adopted a cross-sectional design, which is unable to investigate the causal relationship between variables, and the interaction between the variables was difficult to explain. In future studies, the adoption of follow-up research is available for better exploration of dynamic relationships between variables. Second, the study provided questionnaires in both English and Chinese, and international students studied the above languages. However, international students from 83 countries may not be native speakers of English or Chinese, which may affect their understanding of the survey questionnaire content. Moreover, the selected scales in the study are mainly validated in North American, European, and Asian countries, while they are deficient in the evidence from Africa, Oceania, and South America. More studies are expected to consider examining the psychometric characteristics of the scale in diverse cultural backgrounds, providing instrumental support for cross-cultural research.

Third, the study adopted a self-report method to obtain the survey data, which makes it difficult to avoid the social approval effect. To elevate the accuracy of the test results, others’ evaluation methods or implicit attitude approaches can be involved. Fourth, international students’ values or cultural factors may have an impact on their social integration and loneliness, but this study did not analyze this point in depth. Fifth, sociodemographic information was seen as the control variable in the mediation model analysis in this study. However, there may be significant differences in attitudes towards sense of power and loneliness among international students from different countries or continents. To better understand the influence of cultural factors on the relationship between variables, it is possible to contemplate comparing differences in a larger sample population.

Conclusion

This study found that the sense of power can directly affect the loneliness of international students and can indirectly affect the loneliness through the chain mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. The results of this study could contribute to a deeper understanding pertaining to the causes of loneliness in international students and underscore a positive value in improving their level of integration and cultural adaptation. The study results underpin the works carried out by educational institutions, psychological counsellors, and policymakers for international student support and mental health services. The above-mentioned practitioners can resort to appropriate interventions (e.g., role play, multicultural education, short-video intervention) to enhance international students’ sense of power, decrease perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma, and then ameliorate loneliness.

Data Availability

The datasets used or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

SLS:

Stigma of Loneliness Scale

ULS -6:

UCLA loneliness scale-6

SDTP:

Social Distance Theory of Power

BAS:

Behavior Approach System

BIS:

Behavior Inhibition System

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Acknowledgements

We appreciate all participants for supporting this study.

Funding

This study was under the Zhejiang Provincial Science and Technology Department key research and development project (No. 2024SCG157).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People’s Republic of China

    Qunming Yuan

  2. Department of Psychology, School of Teacher Education, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, 312000, People’s Republic of China

    Xinchang Lu & Zhiguang Fan

  3. Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, EX4 4, Exeter, QG, UK

    Xiaoli Shi

  4. School of English, Jilin International Studies University, Changchun, 130117, People’s Republic of China

    Jiaqi Leng

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Contributions

Yuan, Lu, Shi, Leng, and Fan conceived and designed the study. Leng, Shi, and Lu helped with data collection. Yuan, Lu, Shi, and Fan provided statistical advice on study design and performed data analysis. Yuan, Lu, Shi, Leng, and Fan contributed to the manuscript preparation and revision. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Zhiguang Fan.

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Yuan, Q., Lu, X., Shi, X. et al. Impact of the sense of power on loneliness among international students in China: the chain mediating role of perceived discrimination and loneliness stigma. BMC Psychol 12, 784 (2024). https://doiorg.publicaciones.saludcastillayleon.es/10.1186/s40359-024-02292-6

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BMC Psychology

ISSN: 2050-7283

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