School leadership fostering mental health in the times of crisis: synthesis of school principals’ views and PISA 2022

Abstract

Administration and governance of schools including many complex processes like bureaucracy, teaching, and school improvement is responsibility school principals. They are like bridges between micro-level dynamics and macro-level policies. Additionally, Turkey has experienced crises like pandemic and natural disasters in the recent years. These crises negatively affect the mental health of school stakeholders. All of these issues require an effective leadership style. In these aspects, the current study aims to investigate school leadership fostering mental health in times of crises. The design of the study is mixed-method research in which both quantitative and qualitative paradigms are followed. The data sources of the study were school principals and PISA 2022 dataset. PISA 2022 data related to mental health were extracted from dataset. Semi-structured interview forms were administered to school principals. Data coming from interviews are analyzed within content analysis while Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) was run for PISA 2022 data. In terms of student-level variables, the PISA 2022 results showed that stress resistance was positively related to sense of belonging, feeling safe, assertiveness, and emotional control whereas it was negatively related to being bullied and empathy. Considering school-level variables, educational leadership and school diversity and multicultural views predicted stress resistance significantly. The results related to qualitative part showed that themes of perception on crisis, the impact of crises, crisis management actions, mental health support, and ways to improve mental health were effective in leadership style. It is concluded that school leadership fostering mental health depends on holistic perspective and taking action.

Leadership involves enhancing how individuals present themselves to others. Organizations value leadership skills due to the unique contributions leaders make. Schools, as organizations, encompass a wide range of responsibilities and roles within school leadership [1]. School principals must navigate both internal factors, which pertain to specific educational goals, and external pressures from entities like government agencies. Often, these challenges create crises within schools that can threaten the mental well-being of all involved. Effective leadership is essential for managing these adverse situations.

Leadership

Throughout human history, various periods have influenced individuals socially, emotionally, and physically. In earlier times, the strong dominated the weak, but in the modern knowledge era, skilled individuals have gained power over those without qualifications. This shift indicates that physical strength has been supplanted by knowledge, making education the foundation of this new power dynamic.

The research stated that countries worldwide prioritize education, particularly developed nations that recognize its crucial role in economic advancement [2]. Consequently, they invest significantly in improving education quality, which is defined by its suitability for purpose, the fulfillment of stakeholders’ needs, and alignment with strategic objectives [3]. These investments yield notable achievements in science and the arts, with many nations contributing original work in these fields.

School leaders must take on the responsibility of adapting their institutions to evolving circumstances. Effective leadership is closely tied to measurable outcomes, such as enhanced student performance, improved work ethics, and increased staff motivation [4]. Numerous studies also demonstrate the positive impact of leadership on educational success [5,6,7,8,9,10]. Ultimately, strong leadership is essential for developing a robust education system, and Turkey requires competent school leaders to enhance its educational framework.

As a developing country, Turkey has struggled to achieve the same level of educational quality as its developed counterparts. While it has made strides in educational quantity, such as increasing the number of higher education institutions and teachers, it lags behind other OECD nations in terms of quality and academic performance [11]. A significant factor contributing to this issue is the instability within the Turkish education system, largely due to administrative challenges. Education in Turkey has not been treated as a priority by political parties [12]. Each Minister of National Education tends to implement drastic changes, and various governments have negatively affected educational administration. This instability also extends to individual schools, where similar administrative challenges persist, often rooted in issues of school leadership.

National literature includes numerous studies examining leadership styles in Turkey. For instance, research on instructional leadership [13], ethical leadership [14], and distributed leadership [15] indicates that these styles can enhance educational quality. Leadership theories such as transformational, distributed, and instructional leadership have developed in different contexts. However, meta-analyses [16, 17] have primarily focused on a single leadership theory, particularly transformational leadership. Additionally, it was found that 54.6% of the studies he reviewed concentrated on just one leadership approach [18]. Moreover, these studies typically present leadership styles as suited for ideal or routine situations, rather than addressing unexpected circumstances. Consequently, the literature on school leadership in Turkey lacks a comprehensive and integrative perspective.

Crisis and its management

Crises and crisis management are critical areas of study across various disciplines, including business, public administration, and psychology. Crises, defined as unexpected and disruptive events with potentially severe consequences, necessitate prompt and effective management to mitigate harm and restore stability [19]. Research emphasizes the importance of preparedness, communication strategies, and leadership during crises [20]. Effective crisis management involves timely decision-making, clear communication with stakeholders, and adaptive strategies to address both immediate needs and long-term recovery efforts [21]. Moreover, understanding the psychological and organizational impacts of crises is essential for developing resilience and improving future crisis response strategies [22]. The literature underscores the need for proactive planning, training, and coordination across all levels of an organization or community to enhance readiness and minimize the adverse effects of crises.

Crises in education and schools encompass a range of disruptive events that significantly impact students, educators, and the broader school community. Research highlights various types of crises that schools may face, including natural disasters, acts of violence, and public health emergencies [23]. These crises not only disrupt normal school operations but also pose threats to the physical and psychological safety of students and staff [23, 24]. Effective crisis management in educational settings involves proactive planning, training, and coordination among school leaders, staff, and external stakeholders to ensure a swift and coordinated response.

Moreover, the literature underscores the critical role of communication and support systems during educational crises. Clear and timely communication with parents, students, and the community is crucial for maintaining trust and ensuring accurate dissemination of information [23]. Additionally, providing psychological support and counseling services to those affected by crises is essential for promoting resilience and facilitating recovery within the school environment [24]. By integrating crisis preparedness into school policies and practices, educational institutions can enhance their ability to respond effectively to crises while minimizing disruption to learning and promoting the well-being of all stakeholders.

Mental health

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, affecting how individuals think, feel, and behave. According to research [25] maintaining good mental health is crucial for overall quality of life and productivity. Factors such as stress, trauma, genetics, and socioeconomic status significantly influence mental health outcomes [26]. Effective strategies for promoting mental well-being include regular exercise, social support networks, and access to mental health services [27]. However, disparities in mental health care access and stigma remain significant challenges [26]. Understanding these complexities is essential for developing holistic approaches to support mental health across diverse populations.

Mental health in educational settings is a critical area of concern, impacting both students and educators. Research indicates that academic pressures, social dynamics, and personal expectations contribute significantly to student stress and anxiety. These stressors can lead to poor academic performance, absenteeism, and even mental health disorders if not addressed early and effectively [28]. Educational institutions play a pivotal role in promoting mental well-being by implementing supportive environments, providing access to counseling services, and fostering open discussions about mental health. Moreover, teacher training in recognizing early signs of distress and creating inclusive classrooms can positively influence student mental health outcomes [29].

Addressing mental health in educational settings requires a multifaceted approach that considers not only the academic but also the emotional and social aspects of student development. Interventions such as mindfulness programs, peer support groups, and resilience-building activities have shown promise in enhancing coping mechanisms and reducing stress among students [28]. Collaboration between educators, parents, and mental health professionals is crucial for creating a comprehensive support network that addresses the diverse needs of students. By prioritizing mental health within educational policies and practices, institutions can foster a conducive learning environment where students feel valued, supported, and empowered to thrive academically and emotionally.

Program for international student assessment (PISA)

The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a globally recognized survey that assesses 15-year-old students’ proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science every three years. PISA provides valuable insights into educational systems worldwide, examining not only students’ academic performance but also their attitudes towards learning and their socio-economic background [30]. With 1-year delay, the last PISA was conducted in 2022 because of pandemic. The results of the exam were shared at the end of 2023, which showed that the quality and equity of learning outcomes attained around the world, and allow educators and policy makers to learn from the policies and practices applied in other countries. The PISA 2022 application includes 15-year-olds in 81 countries. More than 690,000 students representing 29 million students participated.

The broader context of mental health in educational assessments like PISA involves understanding how student well-being influences academic performance and overall educational outcomes. Research indicates that mental health issues, such as stress, anxiety, and depression, can impact students’ ability to concentrate, engage in learning activities, and perform well on standardized assessments [31]. Studies suggest that supportive school environments, access to mental health resources, and strategies to reduce academic pressure are crucial for promoting positive mental health outcomes among students [32]. In the context of PISA 2022, it would be important for researchers and policymakers to consider how mental health factors may interact with digital literacy and other competencies being assessed. By integrating measures of mental well-being into educational assessments, such as PISA, stakeholders can gain insights into the holistic development of students and identify ways to enhance both academic achievement and mental health outcomes.

Evaluation of the literature

The relationship between mental health and leadership in educational settings is a topic of growing interest and importance. Research suggests that effective leadership in schools not only influences academic outcomes but also significantly impacts the mental well-being of both educators and students [33]. Leaders who prioritize a supportive and inclusive school culture create environments where teachers feel valued and supported, which in turn can reduce stress and burnout among staff [33, 34]. Conversely, poor leadership characterized by high levels of administrative pressure, lack of support, or inconsistent communication can contribute to negative mental health outcomes, including anxiety and dissatisfaction among teachers [34].

Moreover, leadership practices that prioritize mental health awareness and intervention can positively influence student outcomes by creating a safe and nurturing learning environment [33]. Leaders who promote emotional intelligence, resilience, and empathy among staff are better equipped to address the diverse mental health needs of students, fostering a climate conducive to academic success and personal growth [34]. Collaborative efforts between educational leaders, mental health professionals, and community stakeholders are essential in developing comprehensive strategies that integrate mental health support into school leadership practices, ultimately benefiting the entire school community. Leadership plays a crucial role in crisis management, particularly in its impact on mental health outcomes among individuals and organizations facing crises. Effective leadership during crises encompasses various dimensions that influence both the organizational response and individual well-being.

Bureaucratic barriers, parent expectations, teacher satisfaction, and student discipline are issues frequently producing problems in the schools. In addition to these common challenges, schools in Turkey like those in other countries have been dealing with consequences of unexpected events like global mobility, economic crisis, natural disasters, and pandemic. In recent years, educational system in Turkey has challenged with Syrian migrants, loss in national money value, effects and consequences of earthquakes and frequent floods, and global Covid-19 pandemic. Thus, mental health of school stakeholder gains importance in dealing with effects of these crises. All of these aspects indicate that the current study has significance in terms of research, theory, and practice. In terms of research, the study will try to fill a gap in the literature by examining the leadership of Turkish school leaders more comprehensively. Contribution to the theory, the current study is based on revealing the most remarkable characteristics of Turkish school leaders in times of crisis. Finally, policy-makers and educational administrators may develop strategies to improve mental health in schools in practice.

Purpose of the study

Turkey faced with many crises influencing school administration in the recent years. All of these crises have a negative role on mental health of educational stakeholders. At this point, school leadership gains importance to deal with crises and to improve mental health of stakeholders. The current study aims to investigate school leadership fostering mental health in the school in times of crisis. In this respect, the current study seeks responses to research questions below.

• 1. How well do student-level factor (sense of belonging, being bullied, feeling safe, empathy, assertiveness, and emotional control) and school-level factors (educational leadership, school diversity and multicultural views, shortage of educational staff, shortage of educational material, and openness culture/climate) predict stress resistance?

• 2. What are the impacts of crises on the school stakeholders?

• 3. How do school principals in Turkey administer the schools in times of crisis?

• 4. What do school principals do to support mental health of stakeholders in times of crises?

• 5. What can be done to improve mental health in the schools?

Method

The design of the current study is mixed method which is a combination of qualitative and quantitative method. In order to achieve the purpose of the study, the current study administered a quantitative procedure by using PISA 2022 dataset. A correlational design investigating the relationship between student stress resistance and student-level factors (sense of belonging, being bullied, feeling safe, empathy, assertiveness, and emotional control) and school-level factors (educational leadership, school diversity and multicultural views, shortage of educational staff, shortage of educational material, and openness culture/climate) was conducted. On the other side, qualitative part was based on grounded theory that is a useful method to draw a framework showing relations between concepts. Within this method, a theory may be developed or updated. Grounded theory approach is managed by “constant comparative analysis” in which data analysis and data collection are conducted together [35]. Parallel to the idea behind grounded theory, the current study aimed to generate a theory on school leadership fostering mental health in times of crises.

For the quantitative part, 7250 students from 196 schools in Turkey participated in the PISA 2022 application were sample of the study. Sample was selected purposively such that a maximum variation sampling was applied for qualitative part. In determination of sample size, data saturation was followed and 11 participants were reached as they were described in Table 1. They were two female school principals while there were nine male school principals. Numbers of school principals in primary schools, middle schools, and high schools were respectively four, three, and four. In school management; 1 school principal has 0–5 years of experience, 4 school principals have 6–10 years of experience, 3 school principals have 11–15 years of experience, 2 school principals have 16–20 years of experience.

Table 1 School principals

Data collection tools of the current study were dataset coming from PISA 2022 and semi-structured interview form. PISA has totally 582 questions for the questions in science, math, reading, and critical thinking skills. Additionally, some of countries also completed questionnaires on information and communication technologies, welfare, student perspective, school principal perspective, teacher perspective, and parent perspective. Semi-structured interview form included five main questions and 15 alternative questions.

In the quantitative data analysis, Hierarchical Linear Modelling (HLM) was run. HLM is an analysis investigating complex form of least squares method. In this method, independent variables are separated to levels hierarchically so that variations on dependent variable are calculated more accurately. Dependent variable of the study, stress resistance, is calculated for student and school levels. Sense of belonging, being bullied, feeling safe, empathy, assertiveness, and emotional control are student-level factors while school-level factors are educational leadership, school diversity and multicultural views, shortage of educational staff, shortage of educational material, and openness culture/climate. Since student data were nested in schools, HLM was used instead of Multiple Linear Regression. Both school and student characteristics must be examined within HLM since education systems have a hierarchical structure. Further, HLM eliminates the violation of assumption of independent observation for nested data.

Content analysis based on general schema guided coding was performed in order to generate analytical schema of leadership in crisis moments. While conducting the content analysis, the code list was first revealed. While naming the codes, the concepts in the literature were taken into consideration. Then, the codes that were thought to be related to each other were distributed under categories. Differentiated codes were evaluated under different categories. The resulting categories were named in the light of the concepts in the literature and determined as themes. On the other side, constant comparative analysis was followed. In this analysis, after collecting data from each participant, the newly collected data is analyzed by comparing it with the data collected from the previous participant. In this procedure, semi-structure interview form changed continuously by considering the previous data collection. For each interview that was completed, firstly, open coding was applied by comparing individual texts. Emerging coding were compared and contrasted such that they were considered according to their similarities and differences. When data collection procedure for all participants was completed within data saturation, axial coding was followed in order to create categories. Finally, selective coding was administered to decide core category by comparing and connecting categories. These core categories were called as the themes of the study, which were expressed as the perception on crisis, the impact of crises, crisis management actions, mental health support, and ways to improve mental health.

Findings

Quantitative part

In the current study, quantitative data were collected to analyze roles of student-level and school-level factors on mental health. Since a variable named as mental health is not available in PISA dataset, a close and related variable, that is stress resistance, was chosen for the analysis. To examine how much variance in stress resistance is caused by differentiation in student-level and school-level factors, null model was performed. Intercept value that means average of school performance in terms of stress resistance is − 0.30. The model is significant (t = -3.57, p < .001) such that usage of HLM instead of regression is significant. The 95% confidence interval was from − 0.028 to − 0.032. Table 2 shows statistics related to null model.

Table 2 Statistics about null model

Variation in the scores of stress resistance of students from different schools is great as it was summarized in Table 3, Χ² (195) = 307.89, p < .001. In-class correlation coefficient (ICC) for school differences was calculated as 0.15 such that 15% of variance in stress resistance was accounted for by differences of schools. This variance also showed that running HLM for this dataset was appropriate. However, this variance also meant that HLM is not required instead of regression analyses. On the other hand, in-class correlation coefficient for student variations was calculated as 0.85 such that 85% of variance in stress resistance was explained by variation in students.

Table 3 ANOVA results

Table 4 summarized statistics related to random intercept model. Sense of belonging, being bullied, feeling safe, empathy, assertiveness, and emotional control predicted significantly stress resistance. Stress resistance was positively related to sense of belonging, feeling safe, assertiveness, and emotional control whereas it was negatively related to being bullied and empathy. One-unit increase in sense of belonging increases stress resistance 0.03 points. One-unit increase in being bullied decreases stress resistance 0.04 points. One-unit increase in feeling safe increases stress resistance 0.05 points. One-unit increase in empathy decreases reading stress resistance 0.12 points. One-unit increase in assertiveness increases stress resistance 0.17 points. One-unit increase in emotional control increases stress resistance 0.41 points.

Table 4 Level-1 model

Table 5 summarized statistics related to level-2 model, which is named as means as outcome model. Role of educational leadership, school diversity and multicultural views, shortage of educational staff, shortage of educational material, and openness culture/climate on stress resistance was tested. Educational leadership and school diversity and multicultural views predicted stress resistance significantly. One-unit increase in school diversity and multicultural views increased stress resistance 0.41 points while One-unit increase in educational leadership increased stress resistance 0.16 points. Shortage of educational staff, shortage of educational material, and openness culture/climate did not a significant impact on stress resistance.

Table 5 Level-2 model

Qualitative part

The current study collected qualitative data on school leadership fostering mental health in crises times. Data were analyzed via content analysis technique in which coding was conducted. Analysis showed five themes, which were named as perception on crisis, the impact of crises, crisis management actions, mental health support, and ways to improve mental health. Table 6 demonstrated themes, sub themes, and five most frequent codes.

Table 6 Themes and codes

The first theme: perception on crisis

The first theme that was depicted in qualitative data analysis was the perception on crisis. Two sub-themes emerged under this theme: multiple crises and school crises. School principals talked about the impact of different types of crises such as climate, health and disaster on schools. For example, SP10 stated that it was a negative situation for students to be at school in warmer weather as a result of the shifting seasons with the climate crisis. On the other side, school crises like disciplined, failure, and special education were specified by school principals. One of the school principals, SP7, stated that disruptions in special education processes are important parts of school crises. Students in need of special education often show adaptation problems, resulting in a crisis environment for many stakeholders, from teachers to parents.

The second theme: impact of crises

The second theme of the study, the impact of crises, was organized into four sub themes: academic impact, sociocultural impact, economic impact, and psychological impact. The codes associated with academic impact were generally low GPA, lack of knowledge, and lack of skills. One participant, SP1 declared as follows:

As you know, Turkey experienced the disaster of the century. Especially the Kahramanmaraş earthquake created an important crisis situation for schools, schools were canceled, academic achievement of our students declined. Especially our students at the end of high school were going to take the university exam and were negatively affected by this situation. Most of them took lower points than we expected.

Further, socio-cultural aspects were visible in the schools. The most frequent codes were detected as social integration problem, digital addiction, social isolation, lack of activity, and lack of cultural capital. SP4 declared sociocultural impacts of crises as follow:

In recent years, I see a socialization problem among my students. Of course the Covid 19 pandemic has undoubtedly played a role in this. Everywhere was closed, students stayed at home all the time. They thought they would get sick if they closed someone. In addition to this pandemic, digital addiction also has a negative impact on these social integration processes. Unfortunately, our students prefer digital channels instead of socializing. As a result, a process of social isolation emerges.

In the data analysis, it is stated that the economic impact of crises is mostly the financial crises experienced by families. SP6 stated that the multiple crises in the country had a negative impact on families and that there were more unemployed parents. Further, students were challenged with clothing and nutrition problems due to economic impacts of crises. The last sub-theme related to impact of crises was psychological impact. The most frequent codes were anxiety, depression, stress, lower wellbeing, and negative mental health. Crises influence psychological situation of not only students but also other stakeholders. SP8 stated his comments as follow:

There have been major crises in our country in recent years. The Covid-19 pandemic, earthquakes and even floods… We can also add the forest fires in the summer. Almost all of these have somehow negatively affected learning at school. I would say that most of these negative effects are psychological. The mental health of both teachers and students has been negatively affected. Students’ test anxiety has increased. In fact, this anxiety often turned into depression.

The third theme: crisis management actions

The third theme of the current study was crisis management actions. Responses of participants mostly focused on activities to manage crises in different levels. Therefore, these responses were classified as school-level, community-level, and government-level. School-level actions depicted the codes as follow: leadership, communication, teacher resilience, safety, and student motivation. Almost all school principals stressed the role of leadership style on mental health. For this reason, they stated they lead school stakeholders by implementing democratic, humanistic, and participatory styles. SP5 declared that school safety has crucial significance to keep mental health of not only students and teachers but also parents positive.

Community-level actions on crises management were mostly based on cooperation. Parental involvement, partnership, donation, meetings, and universities were the most frequently mentioned codes. SP2 mentioned the function of universities:

I can say that we get the most support from universities in terms of school-environment cooperation in dealing with crises in our school. Thanks to the academics of the guidance and psychological counseling and educational administration departments of universities, they support us a lot. Whenever we ask for training, they do not refuse us and provide training.

The last actions related to crisis management were those coming from government. For this sub-theme, political actors put forward actions to manage crises. The most frequent codes were listed as legal orders, ministry, education organizations, president, and parliament. SP9 exemplified that the ministry reacted very quickly after the pandemic and immediately switched to distance learning. Another participant, SP3, emphasized the role of legal orders and parliament as below:

Since our country is a centralized country, we need to act according to legal regulations even when making decisions in a crisis. At this point, the Ministry can find quick solutions with circulars and regulations, but we can say that important crises that concern the whole country are overcome through commission work and laws in parliament. We experienced the effective actions of these institutions both during the pandemic and the earthquake.

The fourth theme: mental health support

The fourth theme of the current study was mental health support. The school principals explained how school stakeholders supported their mental health. They talked about both their incentives and experiences of stakeholders. The sub-themes were emerged as educational, sportive, and social supports. In terms of educational support, well-being seminars, projects, graduate education, online education, and lifelong learning drew attention. SP2 declared that increase in opportunities related to lifelong learning activities affected positively mental health of teachers. SP11 mentioned the significance of graduate education on positive mental health. She stated that mental health of teachers participating in Master of Science were developed after they registered to graduate programs.

Considering sportive support, exercise, walking/running, swimming, yoga, and team sports were codes mentioned by school principals. All school principals underlined the importance of making sport on mental health. They talked about the positive effects of many sports branches on mental health, from team sports such as soccer to individual sports such as swimming. SP10 declared that she was making Yoga that evening if she experienced a negative day in the school. The last sub-theme for mental health support was social support. Mostly observed activities were represented as picnic, ceremonies, dinner/breakfast, social media, and family visits. According to views of school principals, teachers and student like to come together in special days so that these events have a positive impact on mental health of students and teachers. SP3 expressed this situation as follows:

All components of the school enjoy being together in sociocultural activities. And frankly, I think it’s good for everyone’s mental health. Imagine you’ve been teaching at school all day and you’re tired. When you have dinner with your favorite colleagues in the evening, all your tiredness goes away and you feel more vigorous. The same is true for students. Listening to lectures, preparing for exams; all these are exhausting events. But if you organize an award ceremony for students, you can relieve their stress.

The fifth theme: ways to improve mental health

The last and fifth theme of the current study was ways to improve mental health. Suggestions of school principals to improve mental health in school were classified into three groups: individual, organizational, and local/national suggestions. In terms of individual ways to improve mental health, school principals mostly recommended consulting, managing stress, learning, saying “no”, and being patient. SP2 stated that education stakeholders in Turkey unfortunately are in a hurry, so everyone should learn to be patient if they want to improve their mental health. Further, SP5 expresses that learning to say no has crucial significance for not only for those in the field of education, but for everyone in different sectors.

Considering organizational ways to improve mental health, the most frequent codes were empowering teachers, guiding students, drawing parents to school, creating budget, and cooperating with stakeholders. It was observed that school principals cared about all stakeholders in their approach to mental health from an organizational perspective. SP4 concentrated mostly on ways improving mental health of students by guiding them while SP9 focused more on empowering teachers. On the other side, need on money to improve mental health was emphasized by SP5 and SP2. SP7 offered an organizational perspective as follows:

I would say that there is a need for organizational interventions to improve mental health because especially school management can reach all stakeholders more easily. In other words, if there is an organizational climate in the school that focuses on mental health, you can improve the mental health of all, especially teachers and students. To achieve this, money is needed. The money sent by the Ministry is only enough to cover basic expenses. For example, you want to create a library to empower teachers, but you don’t have the resources. The school administration must create a budget to solve these problems.

In terms of local/national ways to improve mental health, school principals offered macro-level approaches. Educational policy, organizational structure, autonomy, collaboration, and financial support were the key recommendations mentioned by participants. SP6 suggested that organizational structure of the schools would be changed by considering mental health of stakeholders and she exemplified this suggestion by saying that there should be a mental health promotion unit in each district. Another participant, SP7, stressed the importance of school autonomy such that school principals would make rapid and effective decisions to improve mental health. SP1 explained his recommendations as follow:

In order to improve both mental health in schools and the leadership skills of school administrators, ministry-oriented studies must be carried out because the fish stinks from the head. Unfortunately, in our country, policies related to teaching are mostly put into practice. Education is not only about teaching. There is also a psychological aspect to education and there is a need for educational policies to improve mental health. For this reason, cooperation should be established with other ministries, especially the Ministry of Health.

Synthesis of quantitative and qualitative part

The current study collected both quantitative and qualitative data to put forward a model on school leadership fostering mental health in times of crises. Therefore, quantitative and qualitative data were synthesized. The model for this kind of leadership is based on stress resistance and mental health. Stress resistance is influenced by student-level and school-level factors and influenced mental health that is addressed together with multiple crisis management, mental health support and improvement of mental health. The Fig. 1 depicts the model.

Fig. 1

School Leadership Fostering Mental Health

Discussion and conclusion

The current study indicated that school principals need an effective mental health in order to lead schools in times of crises. Further, their capability on stress resistance has a positive impact on mental health. Therefore, it can be concluded that leadership style fostering on mental health that is influenced by stress resistance is effective in times of crises. The big picture between leadership, crisis management and stress resilience which is emerged in the literature was also depicted in the current study. The interplay between mental health, crisis management, and leadership is an increasingly relevant area of inquiry, particularly in the context of contemporary organizational challenges. Leaders play a pivotal role in navigating crises, and their mental health significantly influences their decision-making, communication strategies, and the overall resilience of their teams. This discussion explores how mental health impacts leadership effectiveness during crises, the importance of supportive leadership in promoting mental well-being, and strategies for enhancing mental health within crisis management frameworks.

In the current study, stress resistance was associated with both student-level and school-level variables. This result was consistent with the other studies in the literature. A study related to stress management found that stress management techniques such as mindfulness, can improve emotional regulation and decrease anxiety levels [36]. On the other side, enhancing emotional intelligence is pivotal for leaders seeking to improve their stress resistance. Training programs focused on self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills can equip leaders with the tools to manage stress effectively [37]. In another study, it was emphasized that teacher leadership is effective in reducing the stress level of principals [38]. On the other side, the current study showed that school diversity and multicultural views were positively related to stress resistance. However, this result was inconsistent with the literature. To illustrate, it was found that teachers who encountered a school with high cultural diversity showed higher feelings of stress compared to teachers who encountered a school with low cultural diversity [39].

The idea behind the current study is the parallel to ideas in the literature. Stress resistance is linked to mental health such that creating a supportive organizational culture that encourages stress resistance can bolster leaders’ resilience and mental health. Organizations should promote mental health resources and facilitate peer support systems, enabling leaders to share their experiences and coping strategies [40]. Leaders who demonstrate resilience foster a more positive work environment, promoting higher employee engagement and lower turnover rates, all of which fosters mental health also [41]. Further, teams led by resilient leaders are often more adaptable to change, displaying improved problem-solving capabilities and innovation.

Stress resistance in leadership is a critical area of study that explores how leaders manage stress, cope with challenges, and influence their teams during high-pressure situations. The ability to withstand stress not only affects a leader’s performance but also has significant implications for organizational outcomes, team dynamics, well-being, and mental health. For instance, transformational leaders, who inspire and motivate followers, tend to exhibit higher stress resistance due to their proactive coping strategies and strong emotional [42]. Similar result was emerged in the other study such that the researchers highlighted that effective stress management enhances cognitive functioning, allowing leaders to process information more efficiently, consider multiple perspectives, and anticipate potential outcomes [43].

The current study showed that mental health was addressed together with multiple crisis management, mental health support and improvement of mental health. These interrelations were in line with the ideas put forward in the literature. According to the Job Demands-Resources Model, mental health is both a resource and an outcome of workplace conditions, highlighting the cyclical relationship between stressors, mental well-being, and performance [44]. Effective crisis management requires leaders to maintain clarity of thought, swift decision-making, and clear communication, all of which are compromised when mental health is impaired. The Situational Crisis Communication Theory [21] underscores the importance of leader communication during crises, emphasizing that mental health influences how leaders communicate and how their messages are received by stakeholders.

Results related to mental health support were coherent with the literature. Community support systems play a vital role in mental health. Peer support, characterized by shared experiences and mutual understanding, has been shown to significantly improve mental health outcomes. A study found that peer support groups can enhance self-esteem, reduce feelings of isolation, and foster a sense of belonging [45]. Access to professional mental health services remains a cornerstone of mental health support. Research highlights the importance of early intervention and the role of mental health professionals in diagnosing and treating disorders [46]. Therapies such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, psychodynamic therapy, and interpersonal therapy have demonstrated efficacy in treating various mental health conditions [47]. To summarize, there are many support systems for mental health.

The current study also put forward ways to improve mental health. This result was consistent with the other studies in the literature. A meta-analysis found that mindfulness-based interventions significantly decreased symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress across various populations [48]. Creative therapies, including art therapy, music therapy, and drama therapy, provide alternative avenues for expression and healing. Research indicates that expressive therapies can reduce anxiety, promote emotional release, and improve overall well-being [49]. Training programs aimed at increasing mental health awareness among employees and management are crucial in creating a supportive workplace environment. Research indicates that mental health literacy can enhance recognition of mental health issues and reduce stigma [50]. In conclusion, the literature underscores the importance of a multifaceted approach to mental health techniques.

The relationship between leadership and mental health has garnered increasing attention in recent years, particularly as organizations recognize the profound impact of leadership styles and behaviors on employee well-being and mental health as parallel to findings of the current study. Research indicates that transformational leaders promote a supportive work environment, leading to increased job satisfaction and reduced stress levels among employees [51]. By fostering open communication and encouraging professional development, these leaders can enhance employees’ mental health. It was demonstrated that emotionally intelligent leaders create a positive work atmosphere, which can reduce psychological distress and promote resilience among team members by improving mental health [52]. A study emphasizes that training leaders to understand mental health significantly improves their ability to foster a supportive work environment [53]. Leaders who model and advocate for flexible work arrangements contribute to reduced stress and improved mental well-being among employees [54].

Although this study overcomes many limitations with a mixed model design, there are certain limitations. First of all, there is the limitation of the PISA database used as quantitative data. This database may not contain data suitable for the spirit of the study. For this reason, it is recommended that studies similar to the current study should be conducted by collecting empirical data. In addition, the participants selected for the qualitative dimension of this study were principals in a geographical region. Their experience of multiple crises may not be deep. For this reason, studies conducted with principals from different regions who experience different crises may yield more satisfactory results.