Introduction

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors, as conceptualized by Herzberg's two-factor theory Herzberg [1], are critical in understanding job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Intrinsic factors, such as personal achievement, self-sufficiency, recognition, and opportunities for growth, are linked to internal motivations that inspire individuals to excel in their roles. These motivators are essential for fostering long-term satisfaction and engagement among employees [2]. In contrast, while external needs may be met by extrinsic factors that ensure a conducive working environment—including salary, working conditions, and administrative support—they do not directly generate satisfaction when fulfilled [3]. The interplay between these variables is pivotal: extrinsic factors are hygiene elements that mitigate dissatisfaction, while intrinsic factors function as true motivators that enhance satisfaction and commitment [4].

In education, teacher job satisfaction is a cornerstone of both teaching quality and institutional cohesion, Yang, Lu [5]. Notably, increased teacher satisfaction is correlated with superior institutional outcomes and student achievements [6]. Emphasizing its importance, Baroudi, Tamim [7] argue that gauging and understanding job satisfaction is crucial for administrators to foster an efficient educational environment, which in turn improves teaching quality, institutional efficiency, and student success.

The importance of job satisfaction extends across industries, as organizations that prioritize employee satisfaction tend to achieve significant increases in productivity [8]. In education, satisfied teachers exhibit more zeal and engagement, and are more favorably disposed toward their roles [7]. Intricately intertwined with job satisfaction is organizational commitment, which also governs educational quality, teacher performance, and student outcomes. Highly committed teachers make greater efforts to align with institutional goals [9].

Research has delved into teacher job satisfaction and its ramifications for a range of issues, such as motivation, commitment, stress, teacher attrition, and burnout [7]. Alarming trends such as teacher shortages and escalating turnover [5] underscore the global urgency surrounding these concerns. Cavicchia and Sarnacchiaro [10] contend that discerning the determinants of teacher satisfaction is instrumental for refining pedagogical policies.

To examine teacher job satisfaction in the educational context of Ecuador, this study employs Herzberg's two-factor theory, which is widely utilized in scientific literature to assess job satisfaction by distinguishing between intrinsic motivators and extrinsic hygiene factors [1, 11]. While previous research has applied this theory to explore teacher satisfaction and organizational commitment in various geographical regions, such as Lebanon [7], South Africa [12], and Vietnam [13], there is a notable gap in the Latin American context. Although studies such as the one by Madero [14] have evaluated secondary school teachers’ dissatisfaction in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico without applying this theory, there remains a lack of comprehensive research on teacher satisfaction and commitment, particularly in Ecuador. This gap underscores the need for studies tailored to the cultural and contextual specificities of educational systems in resource-constrained environments like those in Latin America, as local socioeconomic limitations shape the balance of factors influencing teacher satisfaction and organizational commitment [15].

In this context, the primary objective of this study is to evaluate the relationships between the extrinsic and intrinsic factors identified by Herzberg, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction among primary and secondary school teachers in the Manabí region of Ecuador. Addressing this research gap is crucial for enhancing the quality of education, promoting educators' well-being, and optimizing resource utilization in Ecuador's educational system.

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a comprehensive review of the previous literature, establishing the theoretical and contextual framework for the research. Sections 3 and 4 detail the methodology employed and the results obtained, respectively. Section 5 conducts a critical analysis of the results, discussing their relevance and implications in the context of recent literature. Finally, Section 6

Literature review and hypothesis development

Background

Herzberg's two-factor theory is pivotal in studying job satisfaction as it addresses both intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing workers' well-being. This theory distinguishes between motivators, such as achievement and recognition, which contribute to job satisfaction, and hygiene factors, such as company policy and salary, which prevent job dissatisfaction [16]. Motivators are associated with higher-order needs, whereas hygiene factors are linked to lower-order needs, according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs [11]. Herzberg [17] identifies a series of motivators and hygiene factors that influence job satisfaction, emphasizing the importance of considering both aspects to fully comprehend the dynamics of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work. The application of Herzberg's theory in studies such as the one conducted by Thant and Chang [15] in Myanmar highlights its relevance in understanding job satisfaction factors across different contexts.

In the context of our study, which aims to determine the extrinsic and intrinsic factors influencing the organizational commitment and job satisfaction of teachers in Ecuador, the findings of previous research help justify the relevance of our investigation and provide a solid knowledge base for the theoretical framework. The scarcity of research on these constructs in Latin America, specifically in the Ecuadorian educational system, indicates a gap in the literature that our study seeks to address. To this end, we analyze a summary of recent research on Herzberg's two-factor theory in education (see Table 1).

Table 1 Recent studies on Herzberg's two-factor theory in education
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With respect to the importance of Herzberg's two-factor theory in education and public service, these studies demonstrate its relevance in understanding and improving job satisfaction among faculty members, government employees, and students. By identifying both hygiene and motivational factors, organizations can address key areas to create conducive work environments and enhance satisfaction levels, ultimately leading to better performance and outcomes in both areas. This aligns with the objectives of our work, which seeks to identify these influential factors and explore potential relationships between organizational commitment and job satisfaction among Ecuadorian teachers.

This study is based on seven hypotheses that relate Herzberg's intrinsic and extrinsic factors to teachers' organizational commitment and job satisfaction. These hypotheses are set out below.

Extrinsic factors and job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is defined as “a state of mind determined by the extent to which the individual perceives her/his job-related needs to be met” [21]. These needs can be met through two relevant factors, namely, the employee feeling comfortable in the workplace and the employee’s ability to do his or her job. The first refers to a person's level of satisfaction with the conditions and circumstances surrounding their employment, whereas the second refers to a person's level of satisfaction with their own achievements within their workplace [6].

Extrinsic factors are associated with the positive or negative feelings that employees experience at work and that they attribute to their working environment [22]. They include aspects such as payment, working conditions, supervision, teaching resources and job security [7].

Job satisfaction has been shown to stem from circumstances extrinsic to people's motivations. To grow strategically and stand out from competitors, organizations must understand their employees and provide the basic conditions for fulfilling their responsibilities. For teachers, this would include salaries commensurate with the work they do, or safe and dignified working environments that allow them to do their job properly [23]. When these extrinsic (hygiene) needs are met, teachers’ level of job satisfaction increases [7]. However, although some studies suggest that extrinsic job factors have a significant positive relationship with job satisfaction, other authors such as Akosile and Ekemen [8] found no such relationship. Therefore, based on the literature, the following hypothesis is proposed to test this relationship:

  • H1: Extrinsic factors have a direct positive relationship with teachers' job satisfaction.

Intrinsic factors and job satisfaction

The scientific literature on job satisfaction in teachers points to a solid relationship between intrinsic factors and job satisfaction [7, 8], confirming that addressing intrinsic factors enhances teachers' job satisfaction. Specifically, intrinsic factors refer to aspects such as the feeling of personal fulfillment, the recognition of a job well done, the interest and importance of the task performed, and the opportunities for professional advancement and personal growth that are directly associated with the experiences that teachers have in their workplace [22, 24].

Therefore, to promote teachers' job satisfaction, it is necessary to cultivate intrinsic factors at work while preventing dissatisfaction by providing external motivational support to ensure the required conditions are in place to retain them in the field of education [25]. Motivated teachers foster students' motivation to learn. This leads to outcomes such as enjoyment, interest, task engagement, and improved academic performance [26]. On the basis of the theoretical foundations established by previous analyses of this relationship, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H2: Intrinsic factors have a direct positive relationship with teachers' job satisfaction.

Extrinsic factors and organizational commitment

Extrinsic factors and organizational commitment are constructs that have been examined in various other studies on the education sector. A lack of commitment by teachers has far-reaching consequences and may be reflected in students' poor academic performance. A study conducted in Tanzania showed that student performance could suffer if teachers have a relatively low level of commitment to their profession, attributed to poor working conditions in schools and the low status assigned to teaching by the community and the government [27]. Furthermore, this low level of teacher commitment could partly explain the high teacher dropout rate in this country and other sub-Saharan African countries. These conclusions are in line with the findings reported by Slišković, Burić [28] in their study of Croatian elementary school teachers’ perspectives on the teaching profession.

According to Ibrahim and Aljneibi [29], teachers' commitment increases with age, length of service, and tenure at the same school, but declines when teachers have heavy teaching loads, teach various subjects, and are given exhausting nonteaching duties. More specifically, Jahromi, Razmjooei [24] found a significant relationship between hygiene-motivation factors and organizational commitment; better provision of these factors leads to higher commitment. On the basis of the cited literature, the following hypothesis is proposed:

  • H3: Extrinsic factors have a direct positive relationship with teachers' organizational commitment.

Intrinsic factors and organizational commitment

Jones [30] defines three forms of teacher commitment: commitment to the institution, commitment to the teaching profession and commitment to students. The first refers to the teacher's identification with and active participation in the institution's objectives and values. The second describes the teacher's degree of identification with and satisfaction with the profession, while the third focuses on the teacher's responsibility for students' learning and behavior. Highly committed teachers are energized, dedicated, and tenacious in the face of challenges [31]. The scientific literature has shown that teachers’ commitment has an undeniable impact, whether positive or negative, on various dimensions of education, particularly on student performance [32].

The effort made by teachers in their professional practice is determined by many intrinsic factors, including self-efficacy and collective efficacy. Ryan and Hendry [33] analyzed these two factors and reported that higher levels of teacher and collective self-efficacy are positively associated with student achievement as well as enhanced teacher well-being and commitment to their profession. Therefore, based on the theoretical foundations described above, the following hypothesis is presented:

  • H4: Intrinsic factors have a direct positive relationship with teachers' organizational commitment.

Organizational commitment and job satisfaction

In education, teachers' job satisfaction is considered a multifaceted construct that has a fundamental influence on teacher commitment and retention. It therefore has the potential to contribute to school efficacy [34]. The commitment of teachers also has a positive effect on their job satisfaction [35]. Furthermore, Xiu, Liu [36] found that job satisfaction positively impacts teachers' commitment to change, particularly regarding personal goals and institutional beliefs.

Mokhtar, Maouloud [37] noted that teachers' commitment and efficacy are entirely dependent on motivation and job satisfaction, and that all these elements improve the quality of education. Estrada-Araoz and Gallegos-Ramos [23] reported a direct and significant relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment; in addition, they concluded that the more satisfied teachers are with their schools, the greater their level of commitment to the educational institution.

In the same vein, Önder, Akçıl [38]reported a significant and moderate positive correlation between organizational commitment and job satisfaction, indicating that as teachers' organizational commitment increases, their job satisfaction levels increase. Nguyen, Nguyen [13] also pointed to a positive and significant relationship between job satisfaction and job engagement. Thus, based on the literature presented, the following hypothesis is formulated:

  • H5: Organizational commitment has a direct positive relationship with teachers' job satisfaction.

The mediating role of organizational commitment in the effects of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on job satisfaction

The extrinsic and intrinsic factors defined by Herzberg have been observed to influence public employees' job satisfaction, including that of teachers in state-run schools [15]. Organizational commitment plays a particularly key role in this nexus. Larkin, Brantley-Dias [39] highlighted the complex interconnections between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Job satisfaction taps into the dual realm of internal and external motivation, addressing both individual aspirations and the way the organization reciprocates, and directly influencing employees’ decisions on whether to stay on or to leave their job. At the same time, organizational commitment serves as a lens through which to view the factors that sway employees' decisions about whether to continue working at the same organization.

Although extrinsic factors are fundamental for job satisfaction, their influence is shaped by organizational commitment. The mere presence of such factors does not guarantee heightened satisfaction, yet their absence can sow seeds of discontent. Nonetheless, when present, they can bolster organizational commitment, in turn encouraging greater job satisfaction. On the other hand, intrinsic elements further enrich teachers' commitment and satisfaction, recognizing and celebrating their roles.

A committed teacher exhibits both heightened motivation and satisfaction Mokhtar, Maouloud [37]. Hence, educational policy architects should emphasize both intrinsic and extrinsic factors to increase teachers' commitment and satisfaction levels.

Furthermore, intrinsic factors, such as self-efficacy and collective efficacy, strongly influence teachers' job satisfaction through organizational commitment. For example, teachers bolstered by self-efficacy navigate work challenges with aplomb, amplifying their job content [40]. Organizational commitment reflects the dedication and connection employees feel toward their role and institution [41]. When they feel committed, teachers' enthusiasm and zeal for their work increase, which is reflected in heightened job satisfaction [42].

Moreover, collective efficacy—a belief in collective excellence in teaching [43]—encourages teachers to embrace teamwork in an effort to achieve a communal vision. Such a collaborative ethos boosts their organizational commitment, and consequently their job satisfaction.

To summarize, intrinsic factors, channeled through organizational commitment, reinforce teachers' job satisfaction. These catalysts sculpt a vibrant work milieu, laying the foundations for pedagogical excellence. Stemming from this, we suggest the following hypotheses:

  • H6: Extrinsic factors indirectly improve teachers' job satisfaction through the mediating effect of organizational commitment.

  • H7: Intrinsic elements indirectly improve teachers' job satisfaction through the mediating effect of organizational commitment.

Methods

A questionnaire was designed on the basis of the studies by Burić and Moè [26] and Santa Cruz, López-Guzmán [44]. However, significant changes were made in the formulation of the questionnaire items to adapt them to the educational sector, thus allowing us to evaluate the hypothesized relationships between the four variables analyzed in this study, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
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Hypothesis model developed on the basis of scientific literature

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Questionnaire development

The questionnaire was structured into four sections. The first section collected information related to the respondents’ teaching positions. The second included 24 items designed to evaluate the constructs under study: extrinsic and intrinsic factors, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The items used to measure each construct were selected through an exhaustive review of the scientific literature, with the corresponding sources detailed in Annex I. The third section gathered respondents’ opinions about teaching in Ecuador, while the fourth section collected sociodemographic data. The survey combined multiple-choice questions and opinion questions; the latter were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (5). The estimated time to complete the questionnaire was 6 to 7 minutes. A pretest was conducted with 25 participants to assess the clarity and coherence of the questions, making adjustments to those that gave rise to any ambiguity. Following this stage, the final version of the questionnaire was administered.

Data collection

The population under study consisted of basic general education and upper secondary teachers from the province of Manabí, Ecuador, with a total registered population of 19,296 teachers. The data collection process was organized in collaboration with local educational authorities. An email was sent by the Regional Delegation of Education to all registered teachers, inviting them to voluntarily participate in an online survey. As a result, 6,316 valid responses were obtained, representing a response rate of 32.73% of the target population. This exceptionally high response rate reflects the institutional support provided by local authorities. Only fully completed and consistent surveys were included in the analysis. Consequently, 273 surveys were excluded due to incomplete answers or significant inconsistencies, thus ensuring the quality and validity of the data analyzed. The data were collected from January to April 2022.

The study employed a convenience sampling approach, as no probability sampling criteria were applied in the selection of participants. Although the invitation was extended to the entire target population, participation depended on the voluntary decision of the teachers. This approach was appropriate given the nature of the study and logistical constraints. Nevertheless, the high response rate enhances the representativeness of the findings within the context of Manabí.

This study does not involve an experimental design but rather falls within the framework of social research. The questionnaire used did not contain sensitive information and was administered to participants who were not part of sensitive or vulnerable groups. The research was reviewed by the ethics committee of the authors' primary university, which determined that, given the study's approach, formal consent was not needed. Nevertheless, the study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines established in previous research in this field [45], and all procedures adhered to the principles and recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki [46]. All experimental protocols were approved by the Zonal Coordination 4 of the Ministry of Education of Ecuador. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Data analysis method

The technique employed in this study was structural equation modeling (SEM) with partial least squares (PLS). PLS-SEM was chosen over covariance-based SEM in this case because the study aimed to maximize the explained variance (predictive focus), and PLS-SEM is more suitable for models with a large number of indicators, latent constructs, or complex relationships. The software used to perform the analyses was SmartPLS 4.0 [47]. SmartPLS 4.0 was selected for its effectiveness in handling complex models. In general, SEM involves two stages: (1) analysis of the measurement model and (2) analysis of the structural model. The analysis of the measurement model ensures the reliability and validity of the constructs through internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. On the other hand, the analysis of the structural model evaluates the relationships between constructs by analyzing path coefficients, explained variance (R²), and predictive relevance.

Results

Table 2 summarizes the data on the sociodemographic profile of the final sample of 6,316 participants. The respondents were predominantly female (70.79%) and aged between 31 and 50 years old (66.97%). Although a university degree is currently a requirement for employment as a teacher, there are still teachers in some stages who do not have a university education; that said, the vast majority have a university degree or higher (89.84%). Regarding the work week, 94.08% state that they are full-time employees, with 70.68% being employed on a permanent contract. Just over half of the respondents work in primary education, although approximately 20% combine basic education with upper secondary education. The vast majority are public employees (94.13%). Notably, almost 45% teach in rural areas. These teachers have low salaries: 66.28% earn between 701 and 1,000 dollars a month, and only 4.75% have a net monthly salary of over 1,000 dollars.

Table 2 Sociodemographic profile
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Estimation and evaluation of the structural model

First, we test for Common Method Bias (CMB) to find out if there is bias in our model. CMB can occurs when data is collected from a single source or at a single time point [48]. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to check whether a single factor explains most of the variance. The first factor should explain less than 50% of the total variance to be acceptable [49]; values above 0.90 indicate the presence of CMB [50].

In this study, the validation of the reflective measurement model requires an evaluation of the reliability and validity of each variable. Convergent validity is evaluated through item loadings. The item loadings for their corresponding variables are all above the values of 0.5 [51] or 0.6 [52], as shown in Table 3. However, some indicators were removed because they were not significant for the construct: specifically, those removed for being below the value of 0.5 were EF3, “school facilities and equipment,” with a score of 3.36 out of 5 on the Likert scale; EF4, “financial remuneration received,” with 3.26 points out of 5, in the extrinsic factors construct; and OC6, “I truly care about the future of this school," with a score of 4.78 out of 5, in the organizational commitment construct.

Table 3 Measurement model, indicator loadings, internal consistency, convergent validity of the measurement model and scales
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Cronbach's alpha is considered the most common measure of scale reliability. In our case, except for job satisfaction, all the analyzed constructs exceeded the recommended value of 0.7 [53]. However, a value of 0.6 is acceptable for exploratory research [54]. We also used composite reliability to evaluate the reliability of the constructs. Using this method, all the variables were found to be suitable according to the criteria proposed by Hair Jr, Hult [53], since the values were all between 0.7 and 0.9. Additionally, there were no problems with redundant indicators because none of the values exceeded 0.95. Furthermore, the exact (or consistent) reliability coefficient rhoA [55] was found to lie between Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability: it is considered acceptable when it falls between these two measures [53].

To evaluate convergent validity, the rule of thumb recommended by Fornell and Larcker [56] is that the constructs should have an average variance extracted (AVE) greater than 0.5 [53]. However, they also recommended a minimum value of 0.4, provided that the composite reliability is > 0.6 when the AVE = 0.4 [see e.g., 56, 57]. Therefore, if the AVE is less than 0.5, a minimum value of AVE = 0.4 is considered acceptable, provided that the composite reliability (CR) is greater than 0.6 [56]. This indicates that, although the variance explained by the indicators is somewhat lower, the construct remains reliable. As shown in Table 3, all the constructs in this study reached the recommended minimum value of 0.40.

Furthermore, we checked the discriminant validity via the Fornell–Larcker method. In Table 4, the square roots of the values of each construct (on the diagonal) are compared with the correlations between the construct and the other constructs. The values on the diagonal are greater than the values below the diagonal, which again indicates that the values related to discriminant validity are satisfactory [53].

Table 4 Correlations and discriminant validity of the measurement model – the Fornell–Larcker criterion and HTMT ratio
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In addition, we evaluated discriminant validity via the heterotrait‒monotrait (HTMT) ratio since it performs better than the Fornell‒Larcker criterion and cross-loading evaluation [58]. All values are below 0.85, indicating an absence of collinearity. The HTMT ratio compares the average correlations between indicators of different constructs (heterotrait) to the average correlations between indicators within the same construct (monotrait) [58]. An HTMT value below 0.85 indicates good discriminant validity. In our case (values above the diagonal), all our values are below this threshold (less than 0.85), indicating that there are no issues with discriminant validity. The HTMT ratios are reported in Table 4.

Following the analysis and validation of the measurement model, the structural model was estimated, and the standardized path coefficients were examined to determine whether the proposed hypotheses were supported. To determine the initial significance of the model and the coefficients of the variables, we followed the recommendation of Hair Jr, Hult [53], generating 10,000 subsamples of the same size as the original sample (6,316). Table 5 shows the results obtained for each hypothesis according to the corresponding path coefficient β.

Table 5 Model results—direct and indirect effects
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The results of the hypothesis model are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
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Results of the hypothesis model

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Table 5 shows the results of the structural model, with the path coefficients associated with the seven hypotheses proposed. The findings support all seven hypotheses in the model. The R2 values for the endogenous variables in the structural model are presented in Table 6. Our constructs exceed the value of 0.1, meaning that they can be considered acceptable and predictive. Specifically, it should be noted that both variables explain more than 40% of the variance in the model (see Fig. 2).

Table 6 Explanatory power (R2), predictive relevance (Q2) and effect size (F2)
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The model demonstrates good explanatory power (R2), and predictive power (Q2), for the constructs of organizational commitment and job satisfaction, especially the former. R² values of 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 correspond to low, moderate, and high levels of explanatory power in the context of model evaluation, respectively. Q2 value greater than zero indicates good out-of-sample predictive ability. Finally, extrinsic factors appear to have a stronger impact than intrinsic factors on both constructs, although the effects on job satisfaction are generally more moderate.

Additionally, the quality of the measurement model was assessed using widely recognized metrics, including the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), the square Euclidean Distance (d_ULS) and Geodesic distance (d_G), Chi-Square, and Normed Fit Index (NFI) [59, 60]. As shown in Table 7, the results suggest that the proposed model demonstrates a reasonable fit to the data. The SRMR value of 0.077 falls within the acceptable limits (< 0.08) [59], while the d_ULS and d_G values of 1.251 and 0.234, respectively, indicate low levels of discrepancy and a good model fit [55]. However, the NFI value of 0.703 reflects room for improvement, as it falls below the commonly accepted threshold of 0.9 for satisfactory fit. Further refinement of the model may enhance its overall adequacy.

Table 7 Goodness-of-fit Measurement Model
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Discussion

This analysis of organizational commitment and job satisfaction was conducted on the 6,316 valid records collected from primary and secondary school teachers in the Manabí region (Ecuador), without distinguishing between educational levels. The discussion of the results is presented below.

First, the results showed a positive direct relationship between extrinsic factors and job satisfaction, supporting the idea that relationships among teachers, supervision, and effective management of educational centers are necessary for job satisfaction (Hypothesis 1), consistent with the findings of Thant and Chang [15]. However, unlike the studies by Miah and Hasan [61] or Asaari, Desa [62], salary was not a significant variable, nor was educational equipment. This partially contradicts Herzberg’s theory [1], which argues that for an organization to progress, it must understand its employees and provide the basic conditions that enable them to fulfill their responsibilities, including fair compensation for their work and a decent working environment in which to perform their duties effectively.

Extrinsic factors showed a stronger positive relationship with organizational commitment (Hypothesis 3), suggesting that effective human resource management and supervision foster a sense of loyalty and dedication among employees. This finding aligns with the idea that loyalty to a supervisor outweighs commitment to the system or organization [63].

Intrinsic factors also have a significant positive association with job satisfaction, supporting Hypothesis 2. This finding indicates that aspects such as enjoyment of teaching, the societal value of their work, opportunities for personal development, and social recognition contribute to higher levels of employee satisfaction. These results align with the work of Jahromi [24], who found a positive and significant relationship between professional development with personal growth opportunities and job satisfaction. Similarly, intrinsic factors positively influenced organizational commitment (Hypothesis 4). Teachers who find their work fulfilling and aligned with their values have a higher level of commitment to the organization [31].

Furthermore, organizational commitment positively impacts job satisfaction (Hypothesis 5). When employees feel emotionally connected to their organization, they experience higher levels of job satisfaction. This relationship is supported by Saridakis and Lai [60], who demonstrated the connection between job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Finally, the study investigated the indirect effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on job satisfaction through the mediating variable organizational commitment. The results revealed that organizational commitment mediated these relationships. Extrinsic factors had an indirect effect on job satisfaction through organizational commitment, while intrinsic factors demonstrated a weaker indirect effect on job satisfaction. These findings support Hypotheses 6 and 7, respectively.

The study's model is robust, with approximately 47% of the variance in job satisfaction attributed to extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors, and organizational commitment.

Conclusions

The theoretical framework applied in this study was underpinned by Herzberg's two-factor theory but with some innovative elements. Here, both intrinsic and extrinsic factors were examined in relation to the organizational commitment and job satisfaction of teachers in Ecuador. This research explored the potential link between strong organizational commitment and high job satisfaction, which is especially important given Ecuador's limited educational public funds.

The findings underscore the multifaceted nature of employee satisfaction and commitment in the workplace. Organizations should recognize the importance of both extrinsic and intrinsic factors in fostering a positive work environment conducive to high levels of satisfaction and commitment among employees. Strategies aimed at enhancing these factors can lead to improved employee well-being, productivity, and organizational performance.

The conclusions offer both academic and practical insights that are beneficial for managing primary and secondary educators in Ecuador. However, further research is warranted to explore additional variables and potential moderating effects that may influence these relationships.

Theoretical implications

The extensive results from a large sample revealed that certain extrinsic factors that were expected to be determinants of job satisfaction, such as teachers' pay and institutional facilities [23], are not in fact prominent drivers of job satisfaction or organizational commitment among Ecuadorian educators, contradicting the postulates of Herzberg [1]. This is evident in the low satisfaction scores corresponding to facilities and salaries, possibly influenced by the underwhelming pay scale for most teachers.

Interestingly, extrinsic determinants that do correlate with job satisfaction include relationships with colleagues, managerial practices, supervisor rapport [43], and teacher training. Intrinsic determinants were related to a vocation for teaching, such as deriving joy from teaching, perceiving work as beneficial to students, or fostering student–teacher relationships. Additionally, personal development, prestige, autonomy, and work recognition emerged as intrinsic influencers [24].

The findings confirm that while both types of determinants have a similar influence on Ecuadorian teachers' job satisfaction, organizational commitment is more intensely affected by extrinsic factors than by intrinsic factors. This dynamic remains consistent even when assessing indirect effects on job satisfaction through organizational commitment. By highlighting a direct positive correlation between educators' organizational commitment and job satisfaction, this study resonates with observations made in previous studies [35]. Essentially, higher organizational commitment equates to enhanced job satisfaction.

Practical implications

Herzberg's two-factor theory posits that intrinsic factors enhance job satisfaction. Conversely, extrinsic factors, when not adequately addressed, can lead to job dissatisfaction, thereby impacting organizational commitment.

However, in this study, the extrinsic variables of teachers' salaries and educational facilities did not prove to be significant; consequently, they are not determinants of either organizational commitment or job satisfaction among Ecuadorian educators. Thus, it can be affirmed that although teachers perceive themselves as underpaid, as reflected in the very low scores for salary satisfaction, if teachers’ salaries meet their basic needs, they do not affect job satisfaction or teacher commitment. Similarly, the quality of facilities does not stand out as a differentiating factor in an educational system with limited resources, such as Ecuador's. However, policymakers must strive to establish fair salary structures while simultaneously addressing other external conditions.

The most impactful extrinsic factors identified in this study were the teachers’ relationship with school leadership and their perception of effective management and supervision. These factors are essential for creating positive work environments. Enhancing training programs for school principals can thus be deemed necessary, as these programs can help them develop the skills required to lead teams effectively and foster strong relationships between teachers and administrators.

Another key determinant was interpersonal relationships among colleagues. Therefore, it is important to create collaborative environments by promoting team-building activities, encouraging open communication, and implementing conflict resolution mechanisms. Implementing strategies based on social psychology and human resource management that foster communication, collaboration, conflict resolution, and professional development can be decisive in the effective management of educational institutions.

Furthermore, education managers should not overlook the need to enhance the social prestige of teaching as a tool for social development, teachers’ potential for personal development, and the recognition of good teaching as a significant element of organizational commitment and teacher satisfaction. Understanding and harnessing the interplay between organizational commitment and job satisfaction is essential for education managers. High commitment typically translates into job satisfaction, productivity, and organizational loyalty. By improving both job satisfaction and organizational commitment, educational institutions can achieve broader goals, reduce teacher turnover, enhance student performance, and foster a more stable educational environment. These changes not only benefit individual teachers but also contribute to the overall development of the educational system. Although this study focuses on Ecuador, its findings are applicable to other Latin American countries and similar regions facing comparable socioeconomic challenges. Policymakers can adapt these strategies to enhance teacher satisfaction and commitment, leading to systemic improvements in education across diverse contexts.

Limitations and future research

The main limitation of this research stems from the tool used for data collection. Online surveying, despite its widespread adoption, carries inherent biases. Respondents may offer skewed opinions that are potentially influenced by perceived repercussions. Furthermore, while the sampling was comprehensive, it was not random; the consequent potential data biases mean the results should be interpreted with caution.

Although this study offers valuable insights into the interplay among extrinsic and intrinsic factors, organizational commitment, and job satisfaction in teachers, several limitations warrant consideration and suggest avenues for future research. First, reliance on self-reported data raises concerns regarding social desirability bias potentially influencing responses. Integrating objective measures or employing multiple data collection methods, such as observations or supervisor evaluations, could enhance the validity and reliability of findings.

Furthermore, while structural equation modeling (SEM) with partial least squares (PLS) was employed because of its suitability for smaller sample sizes and nonnormal data, it may yield less precise parameter estimates. To check the robustness of the results, future studies could explore alternative modeling techniques or different SEM methods.

In potential future studies, including additional variables such as personality traits, organizational culture, or leadership styles could provide a deeper understanding of the mechanisms driving teacher satisfaction and commitment. Moreover, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits causal inferences. Longitudinal studies or experimental designs would provide stronger evidence for causal relationships and offer a nuanced understanding of the dynamics over time. Finally, the socioeconomic context of the participants, characterized by low salaries and rural teaching positions, may have unique implications for the observed relationships. Future research should explore how contextual factors, including salary levels, geographic location, and educational policies, influence teacher outcomes.